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To determine whether the consumption of a beef-rich lunch improves appetite control, satiety, and energy intake regulation while reducing food reward and food cravings compared to the consumption of a soy-rich lunch when matched for macronutrients and fiber content or when match for serving size. The mechanisms of action surrounding the differential responses of beef versus soy proteins were also explored.
A randomized, crossover design, acute study was completed in 21 healthy adults (age 23 ±1 y; BMI: 23.8 ± 0.6 kg/m2) to compare 400 kcal lunch meals varying in protein quality. Two separate comparisons were performed. The first comparison consisted of macronutrient and fiber-matched lunches which varied in protein quality: 24 g beef protein vs. 24 g soy protein. The second comparison matched serving size only: 1 serving of beef (24 g protein with 0 g fiber) vs. 1 serving of soy (14 g protein; 5 g fiber). For each treatment, the participants completed 2 testing days per lunch treatment. During the "Appetite Assessment Days," each participant reported to the lab to consume one of the lunch meals. Pre and 7-h post-lunch appetite and cravings questionnaires were completed throughout each testing day along with plasma, hormonal responses, and plasma amino acid concentrations through repeated blood sampling. Ad libitum dinner energy intake was also measured. During the "Reward Assessment Days," the participants reported to our facility to again consume one of the lunch meals. Pre and post-lunch neural responses to food stimuli, through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), occurred followed by ad libitum consumption of a lunch dessert.
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| Label | Type | Description | Intervention Names |
|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF | Experimental | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef (Cargill, KS). Soy fiber (Nutritional Designs, NY) was added to the BEEF meal to match total final content between meals.The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
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| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched SOY | Experimental | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| Serving Size Matched BEEF | Experimental | The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
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| Serving Size Matched SOY | Experimental | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
| Name | Type | Description | Arm Group Labels | Other Names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF | Other | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef (Cargill, KS). Soy fiber (Nutritional Designs, NY) was added to the BEEF meal to match total final content between meals.The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Eating Initiation | Eating initiation will be measured as the time lapse between consuming the intervention and requesting dinner. | 1 Day |
| Subsequent Food Intake | Ad libitum dinner and snacks were provided. Energy content and macronutrient content of these eating occasions were assessed. | 1 Day |
| Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of hunger and fullness were completed throughout the testing days. The questions are worded as "how strong is your feeling of" with anchors of "not at all" to "extremely." Each reported score can be a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 100 mm. niAUC was calculated for by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of mm) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (min) between the two measures. For reported feelings of hunger, a higher score can be interpreted as "feeling more hungry." For fullness, higher can be interpreted as "feeling more full." Questionnaires were asked at baseline and about every 30 minutes throughout the day for a total of 20 questionnaires. | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
| Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | The samples were collected in test tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Protease inhibitors (pefabloc SC and dipeptidyl peptidase) were added to some of the tubes to reduce protein degradation. The plasma was separated and stored at -80°C. Plasma total glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were measured for all time points using the Milliplex multi-analyte profiling magnetic bead-based multi-analyte, metabolic panel, 2-plex assay and Magpix Luminex technologies. niAUC was calculated throughout the testing period by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of pg/ml) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (units of min) between the two time instances for a total of 20 blood samples. |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Plasma Amino Acids | Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured from the pre and hourly postprandial time points until dinner request following the Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF meal and the Serving Size Matched Beef Meal. An average amino acid concentration was then determined from the change from baseline concentration for all available time points. Plasma amino acid analyses were performed through the University of Missouri-Columbia Agricultural Experiment Station Chemical Laboratories using cation-exchange chromatography (cIEC-HPLC) coupled with post-column ninhydrin derivatization and quantitation. |
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Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria:
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| Name | Affiliation | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Heather J Leidy, PhD | University of Missouri-Columbia | Principal Investigator |
| Facility | Status | City | State | ZIP | Country | Contacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| University of Missouri | Columbia | Missouri | 65211 | United States |
| PubMed Identifier | Type | Citation | Retractions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 25809680 | Derived | Douglas SM, Lasley TR, Leidy HJ. Consuming Beef vs. Soy Protein Has Little Effect on Appetite, Satiety, and Food Intake in Healthy Adults. J Nutr. 2015 May;145(5):1010-6. doi: 10.3945/jn.114.206987. Epub 2015 Mar 25. |
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| ID | Title | Description |
|---|---|---|
| FG000 | All Study Participants | Twenty-four participants signed the consent but two withdrew prior to beginning testing day procedures. One participant was withdrawn due to protocol violations prior to beginning the fourth treatment. All 21 remaining participants completed all interventions of a randomized cross-over study to compare 400-kcal lunch meals varying in protein quality but matched for either macronutrient or fiber content or serving size (Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF, Macronutrient and Fiber Matched SOY, Serving Size Matched BEEF, and Serving Size Matched Soy). The participants completed 2 testing days per lunch treatment. On the first day, participants completed the 8 hour testing day with repeated blood sampling and appetite questionnaires. During the second testing day, pre- and post-lunch food cue-stimulated fMRI brain scans were completed. Within each treatment, the first and second testing days were separated by 2-7 days. However, there was 7-14 days in between each treatment. |
| Title | Milestones | Reasons Not Completed | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study |
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| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched SOY | Other | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| Serving Size Matched BEEF | Other | The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
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| Serving Size Matched SOY | Other | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
| Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Participants viewed 3 categories of pictures including food, nonfood (animals), and blurred baseline images. The pictures from each category were presented in blocks of images. Animal pictures were used to control for visual richness and general interest (i.e., appealing but not appetizing). To determine the effects of protein type on neural activity associated with food motivation, repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the brain activation maps within the Brain Voyager software with use of stimulus [food (i.e., appetizing and appealing) vs. nonfood (i.e., animal, nonappetizing but appealing] and protein source (BEEF vs. SOY) comparisons within the macronutrient and fiber-matched condition and the serving size-matched conditions, separately. The mean percent signal change in the maximum voxel within each region that displayed significant activation after the BEEF and SOY meals was then determined. Talairach coordinates for each region are presented for each row as (x;y;z). | 3 hours |
| - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
| Began 1st Intervention |
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| Began 2nd Intervention |
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| Began 3rd Intervention |
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| Began 4th Intervention |
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| COMPLETED |
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| NOT COMPLETED |
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| ID | Title | Description |
|---|---|---|
| BG000 | All Study Participants | All 21 participants completed all interventions of a randomized cross-over study to compare 400-kcal lunch meals varying in protein quality but matched for either macronutrient or fiber content or serving size. In the macronutrient and fiber-matched comparisons, both lunch meals contained 24-g protein and 2-g fiber, differing only in the type of protein consumed (beef vs. soy). In the serving size-matched comparisons, the lunch meals contained 1 serving of beef (24-g protein/1-g fiber) or 1 serving of soy (14-g protein/5-g fiber). The participants completed 2 testing days per lunch treatment. On the first day, participants completed the 8 hour testing day with repeated blood sampling and appetite questionnaires. During the second testing day, pre- and post-lunch food cue-stimulated fMRI brain scans were completed. Within each treatment, the first and second testing days were separated by 2-7 days. However, there was 7-14 days in between each treatment. |
| Units | Counts |
|---|---|
| Participants |
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| Title | Description | Population Description | Parameter Type | Dispersion Type | Unit of Measure | Calculate Percentage | Denominator Units Selected | Denominators | Classes | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Categorical | Count of Participants | Participants |
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| Age, Continuous | Mean | Standard Deviation | years |
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| Sex: Female, Male | Count of Participants | Participants |
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| Region of Enrollment | Count of Participants | Participants |
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| Type | Title | Description | Population Description | Reporting Status | Anticipated Posting Date | Parameter Type | Dispersion Type | Unit of Measure | Calculate Percentage | Time Frame | Units Analyzed | Denominator Units Selected | Arm/Group Information | Denominators | Classes | Analyses | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | Eating Initiation | Eating initiation will be measured as the time lapse between consuming the intervention and requesting dinner. | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | minutes | 1 Day |
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| Primary | Subsequent Food Intake | Ad libitum dinner and snacks were provided. Energy content and macronutrient content of these eating occasions were assessed. | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | kilocalories | 1 Day |
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| Primary | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of hunger and fullness were completed throughout the testing days. The questions are worded as "how strong is your feeling of" with anchors of "not at all" to "extremely." Each reported score can be a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 100 mm. niAUC was calculated for by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of mm) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (min) between the two measures. For reported feelings of hunger, a higher score can be interpreted as "feeling more hungry." For fullness, higher can be interpreted as "feeling more full." Questionnaires were asked at baseline and about every 30 minutes throughout the day for a total of 20 questionnaires. | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | mm*min | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
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| Primary | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | The samples were collected in test tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Protease inhibitors (pefabloc SC and dipeptidyl peptidase) were added to some of the tubes to reduce protein degradation. The plasma was separated and stored at -80°C. Plasma total glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were measured for all time points using the Milliplex multi-analyte profiling magnetic bead-based multi-analyte, metabolic panel, 2-plex assay and Magpix Luminex technologies. niAUC was calculated throughout the testing period by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of pg/ml) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (units of min) between the two time instances for a total of 20 blood samples. | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | (pg*min)/ml | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
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| Primary | Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Participants viewed 3 categories of pictures including food, nonfood (animals), and blurred baseline images. The pictures from each category were presented in blocks of images. Animal pictures were used to control for visual richness and general interest (i.e., appealing but not appetizing). To determine the effects of protein type on neural activity associated with food motivation, repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the brain activation maps within the Brain Voyager software with use of stimulus [food (i.e., appetizing and appealing) vs. nonfood (i.e., animal, nonappetizing but appealing] and protein source (BEEF vs. SOY) comparisons within the macronutrient and fiber-matched condition and the serving size-matched conditions, separately. The mean percent signal change in the maximum voxel within each region that displayed significant activation after the BEEF and SOY meals was then determined. Talairach coordinates for each region are presented for each row as (x;y;z). | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | percent signal change | 3 hours |
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| Secondary | Plasma Amino Acids | Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured from the pre and hourly postprandial time points until dinner request following the Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF meal and the Serving Size Matched Beef Meal. An average amino acid concentration was then determined from the change from baseline concentration for all available time points. Plasma amino acid analyses were performed through the University of Missouri-Columbia Agricultural Experiment Station Chemical Laboratories using cation-exchange chromatography (cIEC-HPLC) coupled with post-column ninhydrin derivatization and quantitation. | Four participants were excluded because of insufficient time points. | Posted | Mean | Standard Error | pg/ml | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min |
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Adverse data was collected from when they began study procedures to when the completed all testing procedures (approximately 1 month). The length of the study (beginning with the first participant and ending with the last participant) spanned approximately 7 months.
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| ID | Title | Description | Deaths (Affected) | Deaths (At Risk) | Serious Events (Affected) | Serious Events (At Risk) | Other Events (Affected) | Other Events (At Risk) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EG000 | Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). | 0 | 20 | 0 | 20 | ||
| EG001 | Macronutrient and Fiber Matched SOY | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). | 0 | 20 | 0 | 20 | ||
| EG002 | Serving Size Matched BEEF | The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). | 0 | 20 | 0 | 20 | ||
| EG003 | Serving Size Matched SOY | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). | 0 | 20 | 0 | 20 |
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| Title | Organization | Phone | Extension | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dr. Heather Leidy | Purdue University | 765-496-0184 | hleidy@purdue.edu |
| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D000078622 | Nutrients |
| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D005502 | Food |
| D000066888 | Diet, Food, and Nutrition |
| D010829 | Physiological Phenomena |
| D019602 | Food and Beverages |
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| OG003 | Serving Size Matched Soy | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| OG001 | Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
| OG002 | Serving Size Matched Beef | The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
| OG003 | Serving Size Matched Soy | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| OG001 | Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
| OG002 | Serving Size Matched Beef | The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
| OG003 | Serving Size Matched Soy | The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI). |
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| Serving Size Matched Beef |
The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS). |
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