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There is growing evidence that males and females may exhibit different acute responses and long-term adaptations to exercise training. Accordingly, contemporary exercise physiology research increasingly recognizes sex as an important biological variable that may influence appetite regulation and energy balance.
This year's project aims to investigate: (1) appetite regulation and energy balance following acute resistance exercise, and (2) potential sex-based differences in appetite regulation and energy balance in response to resistance exercise.
Understanding both the overall effects of resistance exercise and sex-related variability in these responses is important for improving the physiological interpretation of exercise-induced changes in appetite and energy balance. Such knowledge may help to reduce heterogeneity in exercise research findings and support the development of more precise, evidence-based exercise prescriptions that are applicable to both males and females.
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| Label | Type | Description | Intervention Names |
|---|---|---|---|
| males | Experimental | Resistance exercises are in the following order: squat, bench press, deadlift. Each exercise consists of 3 sets with 7 repetitions, using a load of 70% 1RM with 120 sec of rest between sets. |
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| males control | No Intervention | Participants remained seated at rest during the control trial. | |
| females exercise | Experimental | During the early follicular phase, participants performed resistance exercises in the following order: squat, bench press, and deadlift. Each exercise consisted of three sets of seven repetitions performed at 70% of one-repetition maximum (1RM), with 120 s of rest between sets. |
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| females control | No Intervention | During the early follicular phase, participants remained seated at rest during the control trial. |
| Name | Type | Description | Arm Group Labels | Other Names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| resistance exercise (males) | Other | Resistance exercises are in the following order: squat, bench press, deadlift. Each exercise consists of 3 sets with 7 repetitions, using a load of 70% 1RM with 120 sec of rest between sets. |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Subjective appetite | The appetite perceptions are obtained through a 0-100 mm visual analog scale. The variables assessed include perceptions of hunger (i.e., "How hungry do you feel?"), satisfaction (i.e., "How satisfied do you feel?"), fullness (i.e., "How full do you feel?"), prospective food consumption (i.e., "How much do you think you can eat?"), and nausea (i.e., "How nauseous do you feel?"), with 0 indicating "not at all" and 100 signifying "extremely.". | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Change in acyl-Ghrelin | acyl-Ghrelin in pg/mL | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Change in PYY | PYY in pg/mL | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Change in lactate | lactate in mmol/L | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Energy intake | Participants will be required to record their diet for the day before, the current day (include following exercise ad-libitum), and the day following the experiment. The energy intake include absolute energy intake and relative energy intake . | The Before day, the durning day, and the day following the experiment. |
| change in Cortisol | Cortisol mcg/dL | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Energy expenditure | Energy expenditure will include resting energy expenditure (REE), exercise energy expenditure, and non-exercise energy expenditure. REE will be measured using indirect calorimetry (MetaLyzer 3B; VOâ‚‚ and VCOâ‚‚ exchange). Exercise energy expenditure will be recorded during the resistance exercise session, and non-exercise energy expenditure will be assessed using an accelerometer. Total energy expenditure will be calculated as the sum of these components. |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Leeds food preference questionnaire | Explicit liking A visual analog scale ranging from 0 to 100 mm is utilized to evaluate the question, "How pleasant would it be to taste some of this food now?" with 0 indicating "not at all" and 100 signifying "extremely." Explicit wanting A visual analog scale ranging from 0 to 100 mm is utilized to evaluate the question, "How much do you want some of this food now?" with 0 indicating "not at all" and 100 signifying "extremely." Implicit wanting Participants are given a set of food image pairs and are asked to select their preference by answering the question, "Which food do you desire the most at the moment?". The implicit wanting calculation involves further consideration of response time data based on preference choices using a standardized equation. Relative preference Participants are given a set of food image pairs and are asked to select their preference by answering the question, "Which food do you desire the most at the moment?". |
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Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria:
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| Name | Role | Phone | Extension | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hung-wen Liu, Ph.D. | Contact | +886 0277496863 | hwliu@ntnu.edu.tw |
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| Facility | Status | City | State | ZIP | Country | Contacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| National Taiwan Normal University | Recruiting | Taipei | 106 | Taiwan |
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| resistance exercise (females) | Other | During the early follicular phase, participants completed a standardized resistance exercise protocol consisting of squat, bench press, and deadlift, performed in a fixed order. Each exercise comprised three sets of seven repetitions at 70% of one-repetition maximum (1RM), with 120 s of rest between sets. |
|
| The Before day, the durning day, and the day following the experiment. |
| Energy Balance | Energy balance will be calculated as total energy intake (EI) minus total energy expenditure (TEE). Total energy intake will include energy consumed during the laboratory ad-libitum meal and energy intake recorded outside the laboratory during the monitoring period. Total energy expenditure will include resting energy expenditure, exercise energy expenditure, and non-exercise energy expenditure, as previously described. Energy balance will be expressed in kilocalories (kcal), with positive values indicating energy surplus and negative values indicating energy deficit. | The Before day, the durning day, and the day following the experiment. |
| 3 hours during each study intervention |
| Leeds food preference questionnaire | Taste appeal bias Taste preference (savoury or sweet) is calculated by subtracting the mean savory scores from the mean sweet scores. Positive values suggest a preference for sweet foods, while negative scores indicate a preference for savory foods, and a score of 0 signifies an equal preference between taste categories. Fat appeal bias Fat preference (high or low) is calculated by subtracting the mean low-fat scores from the mean high-fat scores. Positive values suggest a preference for high-fat foods, while negative scores indicate a preference for low-fat or savory foods, and a score of 0 signifies an equal preference between fat content. | 3 hours during each study intervention |
| 10 Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) | Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) will be assessed using the Borg Category-Ratio 10 (CR10) scale during resistance exercise. The scale ranges from 1 to 10, where 1 indicates very light exertion and 10 indicates maximal exertion. Higher scores represent greater perceived exercise intensity. | 1-hour during each exercise intervention |
| Heart rate (HR) | HR will be measured during each study intervention. HRV (Heart Rate Variability) will be measured during each study intervention. | 3-hour during each study intervention |
| Estradiol (E2) | Estradiol (E2) concentration in pg/mL, measured from blood samples. Baseline measurements will be used to confirm menstrual cycle phase for each trial. | Baseline for each trial (female participants only). |
| Progesterone (P4) | Progesterone (P4) concentration in ng/mL (or nmol/L), measured from blood samples. Baseline hormone levels will be assessed at each trial. | Baseline for each trial (female participants only). |
| Concentric Peak Velocity | Concentric peak velocity (m/s) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition. |
| Concentric Mean Velocity | Concentric mean velocity (m/s) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition |
| Eccentric Peak Velocity | Eccentric peak velocity (m/s) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition |
| Concentric Mean Power | Concentric mean power (W) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition |
| Relative Concentric Mean Power | Mean concentric power normalized to body mass (W/kg) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition |
| Concentric Work | Concentric work (J) will be measured using the Gymaware system during resistance exercise. | During each exercise condition |
| Velocity Loss | Velocity loss (%) across sets during resistance exercise will be calculated using data obtained from the Gymaware system. | During each exercise condition |