Loss of reading ability due to stroke, called alexia, likely affects over a million Americans at any given time and causes difficulty performing many daily life functions, such as paying bills, using email/text, reading for pleasure, and reading signs in the community. Understanding the brain and cognitive basis of alexia could improve diagnosis and treatment of this important problem. In this study, the investigators will perform a large-scale behavioral and brain imaging study of stroke survivors and typical older adults to improve our understanding of the brain and cognitive basis of reading in both of these groups.

Participants will complete a battery of tests of reading, speech, language, and thinking abilities. In addition, some participants will complete an MRI. Sessions will be completed across approximately 2-6 weeks, but may be extended depending on participants' schedules and availability. Some participants will be invited to repeat these procedures once or twice in approximately 3-12 months to monitor for changes in reading abilities and MRI measurements over time.

Inclusion criteria:

Stroke Survivors:

• Age >= 18
• Learned English at 8 years or younger
• Brain injury resulting from stroke

Controls:

• Age >= 18
• Learned English at 8 years or younger

Exclusion criteria for all groups:

• History of other brain disorder that could interfere with our ability to interpret results (e.g., Multiple sclerosis, dementia, head injury causing loss of consciousness)
• Severe psychiatric condition that would interfere with participation in the study
• History of diagnosed learning disorder
• Hearing or vision loss that interferes with performance on behavioral tests even after correction with glasses/hearing aids.
• Inability to follow study procedures despite maximal support

Additional exclusion criteria for MRIs:

• Presence of metal in the body that is incompatible with MRI
• Pregnancy
• Claustrophobia

Participants are survivors of left hemisphere stroke with or without reading difficulties, or people with aphasia or alexia due to strokes in other parts of the brain. The investigators recruit participants primarily from the Washington, DC region, but some participants may travel from farther away to participate in the study. The investigators aim for our participants to be fully representative of the diversity of individuals with stroke in the general population.

Control participants have not had a stroke or other brain injury, and are matched to stroke survivors on age, gender, race, educational background, and stroke risk factors.