Participants received arm training using the InMotion2 robot under external focus practice conditions and instructions. Participants practiced arm reaching by playing a simple video game.

EF instructions: "Focus on moving the yellow ball on the screen in a smooth, straight line at a constant speed"; "Move the yellow ball toward the blinking red/orange light"; and "Hit the center of the target and try not to overshoot the target"

Participants received arm training using the InMotion2 robot without the video game interface. Participants were instructed to think about how they were moving their arm while completing the arm training tasks.

IF instructions:

"think about how you're moving your arm"; "push your arm away from you"; "pull your arm toward you"; "move your arm to the right/left"

Both groups practiced shoulder and elbow exercises on a robotic arm device under an external focus or internal focus practice condition.

Practiced arm reaching in a clock-like design to facilitate horizontal shoulder flexion, extension, abduction, adduction.

12 sessions--3 times a week for 4 weeks

kinematic measure of coordination between the shoulder and elbow joint

kinematic assessment of arm motion measured by average velocity decided by maximum velocity

performance based assessment of underlying motor impairment of the affected shoulder, elbow, hand after stroke

performance based assessment of underlying motor impairment and function of the affected arm after stroke