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This is a randomized, controlled trial (RCT) of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) designed to test the effects of PCIT on self-regulation and behavior in child maltreating (CM) parents and their elementary-school children. Two hundred-fifty (250) maltreating mothers and their children (age 5-8 years) will be drawn from Child Protective Services and randomized to the PCIT intervention or a control condition (services as usual). Key contextual risk factors will be assessed, including cumulative risk, parent mental health, and parent substance use. A multirater, multimethod approach to assessment will include measures of self-regulation, parenting skills and children's behavior outcomes. Families will be followed to 1 year for CM recidivism. Findings from this proposed study are expected to have significant implications for optimizing CM parenting interventions by (a) determining the sensitivity of CM parent and child neurobehavioral self-regulation systems to intervention, and (b) identifying individual differences in self-regulation that mediate and moderate response to intervention and long-term maintenance of gains.
Child maltreatment (CM) constitutes a serious public health problem in the United States and is known to compromise children's developing self-regulation skills and amplify risk for substance use and other regulatory disorders. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), an intensive, 20-session parenting intervention, has been shown to improve the quality of CM parenting, improve positive parenting and child behavior, and produce declines in CM recidivism (Chaffin et al., 2004) though the mechanisms underlying its effects are little understood. This project addresses gaps in the CM intervention literature in that it (a) uses an experimental intervention design to test a theoretical model of change underlying PCIT's effects, (b) includes a battery of neurobehavioral measures of self-regulation, and (c) uses observational measures of parenting in an RCT of an evidence-based intervention for strengthening parent self-regulation, reducing CM, and supporting improvements in child regulation and behavior. Study aims are to:
Aim 1: Test the main effects of PCIT on CM-specific outcomes, including reductions in harsh, aversive parenting and CM recidivism and promotion of children's behavioral adjustment. It is hypothesized that intervention families will show significantly greater behavior improvements (i.e., decreased negative parenting, increased positive parenting, and decreased child internalizing/externalizing problems) at posttest and lower CM recidivism at 6-month follow-up, compared to families receiving services as usual (SAU).
Specific Aim 2: Determine the impact of PCIT on indices of CM parents' self-regulation. First, the investigators will test the hypothesis that PCIT exerts direct effects on improving CM parents' capacities for self-regulation in the context of parenting. Second, the investigators will investigate how measures of self-regulation in parents mediate PCIT intervention effects on reductions in CM and improvements in parenting. Third, the investigators will explore whether parents' preintervention self-regulation levels moderate intervention effects on outcomes. The moderating roles of CM subtype (i.e., physical abuse vs. neglect), severity, and other key sociocontextual factors on the outcomes of interest also will be considered.
Specific Aim 3: Investigate the impact of PCIT on neurobehavioral indices of CM children's self-regulation. CM exerts detrimental effects on children's developing capacities to regulate attention, emotion, physiology, and behavior. Deficits in these domains confer heightened risk for psychopathology, early-onset conduct problems, and later substance abuse. The investigators hypothesize that PCIT, though directed primarily toward parenting, will effect improvements in neurobiological indicators of CM children's self-regulation at post-treatment, relative to the control group. Next, the investigators will test the extent to which child outcomes are mediated through intervention effects on parenting. It is hypothesized that child regulatory deficits and behavior problems will be attenuated by PCIT-based reductions in aversive parenting that result from the intervention.
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| Label | Type | Description | Intervention Names |
|---|---|---|---|
| Services As Usual (SAU) | No Intervention | Participants receive all the usual services provided by Department of Human Services (DHS) Children's Services. | |
| Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) | Experimental | Participants receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. . |
|
| Name | Type | Description | Arm Group Labels | Other Names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parent Child Interaction Therapy | Behavioral | PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| DPICS-IV Observed Parenting Skills (During Child-Led Play) | Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS) coded positive "PRIDE" parenting skills and negative "Don't skills" parenting behaviors during the DPICS Child-Led Play task. Scores reflect behavioral counts during the 5-minute task, with higher scores reflecting more behaviors. Higher positive parenting scores reflect better outcomes, whereas higher negative parenting scores reflect worse outcomes. | Pre- and Post-intervention (8 months) |
| DPICS-IV Observational Coding During Clean Up Situation Task | DPICS-Coded Positive "PRIDE" Parenting skills, Effective Parent Commands, and Child Compliance behaviors during the DPICS Clean Up Situation task. Positive parenting scores reflect the percentage of total coded behaviors during the task that are positive "PRIDE" skills. Effective (direct) parent commands reflect the percentage of all commands that were direct, compliable commands. Child compliance scores reflected the percentage of effective, direct commands that child complied with in the immediately following behavioral turn. High scores on all three scales reflect better outcomes. | Pre- and Post-intervention (8 months) |
| Stop Signal Task: Increased Parent Inhibitory Control | The Stop Signal Response Time (SSRT) was used to assess the efficiency of parent inhibitory control process or time in milliseconds needed to engage an inhibitory response. Lower SSRT scores reflect faster reaction times and better inhibitory control. | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Reduced Child Maltreatment (CM) Recidivism | Fewer new episodes of CM per Maltreatment Classification Coding of Child Welfare case records | up to 1 year posttreatment |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| BRIEF-A: Emotional Control Scale (Increased Parent Emotion Regulation) | Parents self-report on the BRIEF- A Emotional Control problem scale, with lower scores reflecting fewer emotion control problems (i.e., better emotion regulation). Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria:
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| Name | Affiliation | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Elizabeth A Skowron, PhD | University of Oregon | Principal Investigator |
| Facility | Status | City | State | ZIP | Country | Contacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| University of Oregon | Eugene | Oregon | 97403 | United States |
| PubMed Identifier | Type | Citation | Retractions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Background | Aber JL, Cicchetti D. The social-emotional development of maltreated children: An empirical and theoretical analysis. In H. Fitzgerald, B. Lester, & M. Yogman (Eds.), Theory and research in behavioral pediatrics (Vol. 2, pp. 147-205). New York, NY: Plenum, 1984. | ||
| Background | Abidin RR. Parenting Stress Index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1995. | ||
| Background | Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms and Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, 2001. | ||
| 11129362 | Background | Adler NE, Epel ES, Castellazzo G, Ickovics JR. Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy white women. Health Psychol. 2000 Nov;19(6):586-92. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.19.6.586. |
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Number Started represents the number of parent participants and the number of child participants. There were 204 parent participants and 204 child participants enrolled for a total of 408 participants (in 204 parent-child dyads).
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| ID | Title | Description |
|---|---|---|
| FG000 | Services As Usual (SAU) | Participants receive all the usual services provided by DHS- Children's Services. |
| FG001 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) | Participants receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. |
| Title | Milestones | Reasons Not Completed | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study |
|
|
Note the sample is comprised of N = 204 parent and child dyads or 408 total individuals. There are 84 parent-child dyads (168 total individuals) in the services-as-usual condition and 120 parent-child dyads (240 total individuals) in the PCIT intervention condition.
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| ID | Title | Description |
|---|---|---|
| BG000 | Services As Usual (SAU) | Participants receive all the usual services provided by DHS- Children's Services. |
| BG001 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) | Participants randomized to receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. |
| Units | Counts |
|---|---|
| Participants |
|
| Title | Description | Population Description | Parameter Type | Dispersion Type | Unit of Measure | Calculate Percentage | Denominator Units Selected | Denominators | Classes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | This is PARENT age in years |
| Type | Title | Description | Population Description | Reporting Status | Anticipated Posting Date | Parameter Type | Dispersion Type | Unit of Measure | Calculate Percentage | Time Frame | Units Analyzed | Denominator Units Selected | Arm/Group Information | Denominators | Classes | Analyses | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | DPICS-IV Observed Parenting Skills (During Child-Led Play) | Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS) coded positive "PRIDE" parenting skills and negative "Don't skills" parenting behaviors during the DPICS Child-Led Play task. Scores reflect behavioral counts during the 5-minute task, with higher scores reflecting more behaviors. Higher positive parenting scores reflect better outcomes, whereas higher negative parenting scores reflect worse outcomes. | These participating child welfare-involved families were block-randomized to condition by child sex and age, with allocation ratio of PCIT to control group conditions at 1.5:1 to ensure that a sufficient number of families accessed the intervention. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | number of behaviors | Pre- and Post-intervention (8 months) |
|
Adverse event data were collected during the time frame encompassing data collection, from participant study entry through study completion, an average of 8 months.
Our definition of adverse event is consistent with clinicaltrials.gov, and is "an untoward or unfavorable medical occurrence in a study participant, including any abnormal sign (for example, abnormal physical exam or laboratory finding), symptom, or disease, temporally associated with the participant's participation in the research." No adverse events occurred in this study.
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| ID | Title | Description | Deaths (Affected) | Deaths (At Risk) | Serious Events (Affected) | Serious Events (At Risk) | Other Events (Affected) | Other Events (At Risk) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EG000 | Services As Usual (SAU) - Parents | Participants receive all the usual services provided by DHS- Children's Services. |
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| Title | Organization | Phone | Extension | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dr. Elizabeth Skowron | University of Oregon | 541-346-9329 | eskowron@uoregon.edu |
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| Type | Includes Protocol | Includes SAP | Includes ICF | Document Label | Document Date | Document Uploaded Date | Document File Name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prot | Yes | No | No | Study Protocol | Sep 2, 2020 | Aug 8, 2023 | Prot_000.pdf |
| SAP | No | Yes | No | Statistical Analysis Plan | Sep 2, 2020 | Aug 8, 2023 | SAP_001.pdf |
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| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D000068356 | Self-Control |
| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D012919 | Social Behavior |
| D001519 | Behavior |
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|
| BRIEF (Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function) Children's Outcomes |
Children's BRIEF scores per parent-report on Inhibit, Shift, and Emotional Control problems scales, with lower scores reflecting fewer regulatory problems. Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. |
| pre- and post-intervention |
| Parent Physiological Regulation | physiological regulation (Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia or RSA scores, are a peripheral physiological marker of emotion regulation reflecting parents' parasympathetic nervous system linked cardiac activity. RSA scores were obtained from parents at rest and in response to emotionally salient interactions with their child. Higher RSA scores reflect greater parasympathetic cardiac regulation (better outcome). | pre- and post-intervention |
| Child Emotion Regulation | Emotional go/no-go task performance: False alarms to anger. Higher scores reflect greater rate of false alarms to anger (worse outcome). | Post intervention (6 mo) |
| Child Physiological Regulation | physiological regulation (Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia or RSA scores, are a peripheral physiological marker of emotion regulation reflecting children's parasympathetic nervous system linked cardiac activity. RSA scores were obtained from children at rest and in response to emotionally salient interactions with their parent. Higher RSA scores reflect greater parasympathetic cardiac regulation (better outcome). | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
| Decreased Child Symptoms | Trauma Symptom Checklist scores (TSCL-YC); T-scores are reported, in which 50 indicates the population mean with a standard deviation of 10; higher scores indicate greater trauma symptoms. Clinically significant elevations on the TSCL-YC are reflected by scores at or above T=70 cutoff | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
| Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) Child Behavior Problem Scores (Decreased Disruptive Behavior Problems) | The ECBI is comprised of parent-reported intensity of problem child behaviors (ECBI-Intensity score) and number of problem child behaviors (EBCI-Problem score). Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD=10) are reported, with lower scores reflecting more successful outcome. | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
| BRIEF-A: Parent Self-ratings | Parents self-report on the BRIEF- A with lower scores reflecting fewer regulatory control problems. Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| BG002 | Total | Total of all reporting groups |
Only the 204 parents' age data were included in this analysis.
| Mean |
| Standard Deviation |
| years |
|
| Sex: Female, Male | Parent Sex: Female, Male | Only PARENT sex is included in this analysis. | Count of Participants | Participants |
|
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized | PARENT and CHILD data are reported in separate sections below. | Count of Participants | Participants |
|
| Participating child age (years) | Only the CHILD participants' ages were included in this analysis. | Mean | Standard Deviation | years |
|
| Participating child sex | Only CHILD sex is included in this analysis. | Count of Participants | Participants |
|
| Parent education | Only PARENT education levels are included in this analysis. | Count of Participants | Participants |
|
| Marital status | Only PARENT marital status is included here. | Count of Participants | Participants |
|
| OG001 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) | All participants randomized to PCIT condition. Participants receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. |
| OG002 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) (Engagers Only) | All participants randomized to PCIT condition who engaged in 1+ sessions. Participants receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. |
|
|
| Primary | DPICS-IV Observational Coding During Clean Up Situation Task | DPICS-Coded Positive "PRIDE" Parenting skills, Effective Parent Commands, and Child Compliance behaviors during the DPICS Clean Up Situation task. Positive parenting scores reflect the percentage of total coded behaviors during the task that are positive "PRIDE" skills. Effective (direct) parent commands reflect the percentage of all commands that were direct, compliable commands. Child compliance scores reflected the percentage of effective, direct commands that child complied with in the immediately following behavioral turn. High scores on all three scales reflect better outcomes. | These participating child welfare-involved families were block-randomized to condition by child sex and age, with allocation ratio of PCIT to control group conditions at 1.5:1 to ensure that a sufficient number of families accessed the intervention. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | percentage of all parenting behaviors | Pre- and Post-intervention (8 months) |
|
|
|
| Primary | Stop Signal Task: Increased Parent Inhibitory Control | The Stop Signal Response Time (SSRT) was used to assess the efficiency of parent inhibitory control process or time in milliseconds needed to engage an inhibitory response. Lower SSRT scores reflect faster reaction times and better inhibitory control. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | milliseconds | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
|
|
|
| Secondary | Reduced Child Maltreatment (CM) Recidivism | Fewer new episodes of CM per Maltreatment Classification Coding of Child Welfare case records | These data are not available from DHS child welfare on the study participants and thus not available to our study team to report here. We have been told that this is due to the fact that the DHS agency internal record-keeping systems do not have data on the study families. | Posted | up to 1 year posttreatment |
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| Other Pre-specified | BRIEF-A: Emotional Control Scale (Increased Parent Emotion Regulation) | Parents self-report on the BRIEF- A Emotional Control problem scale, with lower scores reflecting fewer emotion control problems (i.e., better emotion regulation). Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | T-scores | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| Other Pre-specified | BRIEF (Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function) Children's Outcomes | Children's BRIEF scores per parent-report on Inhibit, Shift, and Emotional Control problems scales, with lower scores reflecting fewer regulatory problems. Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | T-scores | pre- and post-intervention |
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| Other Pre-specified | Parent Physiological Regulation | physiological regulation (Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia or RSA scores, are a peripheral physiological marker of emotion regulation reflecting parents' parasympathetic nervous system linked cardiac activity. RSA scores were obtained from parents at rest and in response to emotionally salient interactions with their child. Higher RSA scores reflect greater parasympathetic cardiac regulation (better outcome). | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | ms^2 | pre- and post-intervention |
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| Other Pre-specified | Child Emotion Regulation | Emotional go/no-go task performance: False alarms to anger. Higher scores reflect greater rate of false alarms to anger (worse outcome). | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | percentage of responses | Post intervention (6 mo) |
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| Other Pre-specified | Child Physiological Regulation | physiological regulation (Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia or RSA scores, are a peripheral physiological marker of emotion regulation reflecting children's parasympathetic nervous system linked cardiac activity. RSA scores were obtained from children at rest and in response to emotionally salient interactions with their parent. Higher RSA scores reflect greater parasympathetic cardiac regulation (better outcome). | CHILD RSA data reported here | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | ms^2 | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| Other Pre-specified | Decreased Child Symptoms | Trauma Symptom Checklist scores (TSCL-YC); T-scores are reported, in which 50 indicates the population mean with a standard deviation of 10; higher scores indicate greater trauma symptoms. Clinically significant elevations on the TSCL-YC are reflected by scores at or above T=70 cutoff | These are CHILD scores. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | t-scores | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| Other Pre-specified | Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) Child Behavior Problem Scores (Decreased Disruptive Behavior Problems) | The ECBI is comprised of parent-reported intensity of problem child behaviors (ECBI-Intensity score) and number of problem child behaviors (EBCI-Problem score). Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD=10) are reported, with lower scores reflecting more successful outcome. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | T-scores | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| Other Pre-specified | BRIEF-A: Parent Self-ratings | Parents self-report on the BRIEF- A with lower scores reflecting fewer regulatory control problems. Standardized T-scores (M=50, SD = 10) are obtained. | Posted | Mean | Standard Deviation | T-scores | pre- and post-intervention (8 months) |
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| 0 |
| 84 |
| 0 |
| 84 |
| 0 |
| 84 |
| EG001 | Services As Usual (SAU) - Children | Participants receive all the usual services provided by DHS- Children's Services. | 0 | 84 | 0 | 84 | 0 | 84 |
| EG002 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) - Parents | Participants randomized to receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. | 0 | 120 | 0 | 120 | 0 | 120 |
| EG003 | Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) - Children | Participants randomized to receive Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve child functioning by interrupting patterns of harsh, coercive interaction and enhancing parents' warm, positive parenting, autonomy support, and competent child management skills. Parent Child Interaction Therapy: PCIT is a 16-20 session live-coaching parenting intervention. PCIT for Child Welfare families is delivered in two sequential treatment phases following a motivational enhancement training: Phase 1, Child-Directed Interaction (CDI) to enhance positive parenting and interrupt harsh aversive parenting, and Phase 2, Parent-Directed Interaction (PDI) to coach effective parent commands and a consistent time-out protocol when child disobeys. | 0 | 120 | 0 | 120 | 0 | 120 |
| EG004 | Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) Engagers Only - Parents | All participants randomized to PCIT condition who engaged in 1+ sessions. | 0 | 79 | 0 | 79 | 0 | 79 |
| EG005 | Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) Engagers Only - Children | All participants randomized to PCIT condition who engaged in 1+ sessions. | 0 | 79 | 0 | 79 | 0 | 79 |
Not provided
Not provided
| Hispanic American/Latinx |
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| African American/Black |
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| Asian/Pacific Islander |
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| Native American/Alaskan Aleutian |
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| Not reported |
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| Multiracial/Multiethnic |
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| Hispanic American/Latinx |
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| African American/Black |
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| Asian/Pacific Islander |
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| Native American/Alaskan Aleutian |
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| Not reported |
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| Post-high school education |
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| Child compliance with parent commands (pre-treatment) |
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| Child compliance with parent commands (post-treatment) |
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| Positive Parenting "PRIDE" skills (pre-treatment) |
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| Positive Parenting "PRIDE" skills (post-treatment) |
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| Shift problems (pretreatment) |
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| Shift problems (posttreatment) |
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| Emotional control problems (pretreatment) |
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| Emotional control problems (posttreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during DPICS Child-Led Play Task (pretreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during DPICS Child-Led Play Task (posttreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during DPICS Clean Up Task (pretreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during DPICS Clean Up Task (posttreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during Social Engagement task (pretreatment) |
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| Parent RSA during Social Engagement task (posttreatment) |
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| Child RSA during child-led play task (pretreatment) |
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| Child RSA during child-led play task (posttreatment) |
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| Child RSA during clean-up task (pretreatment) |
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| Child RSA during clean-up task (postreatment) |
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| Child RSA during Social Engagement task with parent (pretreatment) |
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| Child RSA during Social Engagement task with parent (postreatment) |
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| PTS-Avoidance (pre-treatment) |
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| PTS-Avoidance (post-treatment) |
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| PTS-Intrusion (pre-treatment) |
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| PTS-Intrusion (post-treatment) |
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| Anxiety (pre-treatment) |
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| Anxiety (post-treatment) |
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| ECBI-Number child behavior problems (pre-treatment) |
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| ECBI-Number child behavior problems (post-treatment) |
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| Inhibition problems (pre-treatment) |
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| Inhibition problems (post-treatment) |
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| Initiate problems (pre) |
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| Initiate problems (post) |
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| Monitor problems (pretreatment) |
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| Monitor problems (posttreatment) |
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