Parenting Stress Inventory - short form is a 36-item scale designed to measure stressors in parenthood including parental distress, dysfunctional interactions, and stressors related to having a difficult child. (Example question: "Sometimes I feel like my child doesn't like me and doesn't want to be close to me"). A total score generated by summing all 36 items on a 5-point scale (1=Strongly Agree - 5=Strongly Disagree). Theoretical total range: 36-180; Actual total range: 38-146. Lower scores represent more stress/dysfunction. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 71 or below were rated as low (n=136) and participants rating higher than 71 were rated as high (n=148).

The Parent knowledge sub-scale of the Protective Factors is made up of 5 items that assess parent knowledge. (Example question: "There are many times when I don't know what to do as a parent"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of 5 items on a 7-point scale (1=Never - 7=Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 3.4-7.0. Higher scores indicate higher parent knowledge. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 7 were rated as low (n=149) and participants rating 7 and higher were rated as high (n=133).

The Family Functioning sub-scale of the Protective Factors is made up of 5 items that assess family functioning. (Example question: "My family pulls together when things are stressful"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of 5 items on a 7-point scale (1=Never - 7=Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 1-7. Higher scores indicate higher family functioning. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 6 were rated as low (n=146) and participants rating 6 and higher were rated as high (n=133).

The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. (Example question: "How much were you distressed by nervousness or shakiness inside"). The 'significant case' definition from the BSI was used and includes those with elevated scores (higher than 2) on any of the subscales. The percentage of participants that were considered a 'significant case' is reports. The 'case' definition from the BSI, which includes elevation on any of the subscale. The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. A total score or the, Global Severity Index, is generated by calculating a mean of all 53 items; lower scores indicate lower levels of distress.

The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. (Example question: "How much were you distressed by nervousness or shakiness inside"). The Global Severity Index calculated a mean of all of the BSI subscales which includes 53 items on a 5-point scale (0=Not at all-4=Extremely). Theoretical range of means: 0-4; Actual range of means: 0.0-3.5). Higher scores indicate higher existence of symptoms. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, females scoring below .77 and males scoring below .57 were rated as low (n=197) and females rating .78 and higher and males rating .58 and higher were rated as high (n=87).

The Initiative sub-scale of the Devereaux Early Child Assessment (DECA) is made up of 11-18 items (depending on child's age) that assesses the child's initiative behavior. (Example question: "Did the child do things for himself"). This subscale score generates a t-score of standardized norms from a sum of the 11-18 items on a 5-point scale (0=Never - 4=Very frequently). Theoretical range of means: 28-72; Actual range of means: 28-72. Higher ratings represent a higher degree of child initiation. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 56 were rated as low (n=110) and participants rating 56 and higher were rated as high (n=118).

The Attachment sub-scale of the Devereaux Early Child Assessment (DECA) is made up of 8-18 items (depending on child's age) that assesses the child's attachment behavior. (Example question: "Did the toddler accept comfort from a familiar adult"). This subscale score generates a t-score of standardized norms from a sum of the 8-18 items on a 5-point scale (0=Never - 4=Very frequently). Theoretical range of means: 28-72; Actual range of means: 28-72. Higher ratings represent a higher degree of child attachment. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 52 were rated as low (n=101) and participants rating 52 and higher were rated as high (n=138).

The CHAOS scale (Confusion, Hubbub, and Order) is a 15-item scale used to measure structure and chaos in the home environment. (Example question: "There is very little commotion in our home"). A total score generated by calculating a mean of all 15 items on a 4-point scale (1=Very much like your own home - 4=Not at all like your own home). Theoretical range of means: 1-4; Actual range of means: 1.0-2.7. Lower scores indicate less chaos. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 1.5 or below were rated as low (n=151) and participants rating higher than 1.5 were rated as high (n=133).

The Family Resources Scale - Revised is a 40-item scale that assesses the adequacy of family needs in four domains: basic needs, money, time for self, and time for family. (Example question: "How well is the following need being met: House or apartment"). A total count of resources needed out of 40 assessed. Resources were considered needed if the participant indicated the resource was 'Not at all' met, 'A little' met, or 'Sometimes' met (5-point scale: 1=Not at all - 5=Almost always). Theoretical range of means: 0-40; Actual range of means: 0-40. Higher ratings indicating a higher number of resources needed. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants with 9 or fewer needs not met were rated as low (n=152) and participants with 10 and higher needs not met were rated as high (n=132).

Total of all reporting groups

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the overall population

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the Overall population

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the Overall population

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided their level of education resulting in missing data.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on their income resulting in missing data.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on the number of children in their home resulting in missing data.

Count of participants in a relationship with a partner.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on relationship status.

Working full-time or part-time.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

Households that had another caregiver in the home.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on alcohol use history.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on illegal drug use history.

Data for 4 surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, not all participants provided information on their physical partner violence history.

The Proactive Parenting sub-scale of the Parenting Young Children Scale is made up of 7 items that assess proactive parenting (Example question: "Avoid struggles with your child by giving clear choices"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of seven items on a 7-point scale (1=Not at all - 7=Almost Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 1-7. Higher scores represent higher degree of positive parenting skills. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 6 or below were rated as low (n=148) and participants rating higher than 6 were rated as high (n=136).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions.

The Setting limits sub-scale of the Parenting Young Children Scale is made up of 7 items that assess limit setting (Example question: "Stick to your rules and not change your mind"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of seven items on a 7-point scale (1=Not at all - 7=Almost Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 1-7. Higher scores represent higher degree of positive parenting skills. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 6.3 or below were rated as low (n=141) and participants rating higher than 6.3 were rated as high (n=143).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions.

Parenting Stress Inventory - short form is a 36-item scale designed to measure stressors in parenthood including parental distress, dysfunctional interactions, and stressors related to having a difficult child. (Example question: "Sometimes I feel like my child doesn't like me and doesn't want to be close to me"). A total score generated by summing all 36 items on a 5-point scale (1=Strongly Agree - 5=Strongly Disagree). Theoretical total range: 36-180; Actual total range: 38-146. Lower scores represent more stress/dysfunction. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 71 or below were rated as low (n=136) and participants rating higher than 71 were rated as high (n=148).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

The Parent knowledge sub-scale of the Protective Factors is made up of 5 items that assess parent knowledge. (Example question: "There are many times when I don't know what to do as a parent"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of 5 items on a 7-point scale (1=Never - 7=Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 3.4-7.0. Higher scores indicate higher parent knowledge. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 7 were rated as low (n=149) and participants rating 7 and higher were rated as high (n=133).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

The Family Functioning sub-scale of the Protective Factors is made up of 5 items that assess family functioning. (Example question: "My family pulls together when things are stressful"). This subscale score is generated by calculating a mean of 5 items on a 7-point scale (1=Never - 7=Always). Theoretical range of means: 1-7; Actual range of means: 1-7. Higher scores indicate higher family functioning. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 6 were rated as low (n=146) and participants rating 6 and higher were rated as high (n=133).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. (Example question: "How much were you distressed by nervousness or shakiness inside"). The 'significant case' definition from the BSI was used and includes those with elevated scores (higher than 2) on any of the subscales. The percentage of participants that were considered a 'significant case' is reports. The 'case' definition from the BSI, which includes elevation on any of the subscale. The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. A total score or the, Global Severity Index, is generated by calculating a mean of all 53 items; lower scores indicate lower levels of distress.

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

The Brief Symptom Inventory is a 53-item scale designed to measure a range of emotional health states including depression, anxiety, somatization, and others. (Example question: "How much were you distressed by nervousness or shakiness inside"). The Global Severity Index calculated a mean of all of the BSI subscales which includes 53 items on a 5-point scale (0=Not at all-4=Extremely). Theoretical range of means: 0-4; Actual range of means: 0.0-3.5). Higher scores indicate higher existence of symptoms. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, females scoring below .77 and males scoring below .57 were rated as low (n=197) and females rating .78 and higher and males rating .58 and higher were rated as high (n=87).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population.

The Initiative sub-scale of the Devereaux Early Child Assessment (DECA) is made up of 11-18 items (depending on child's age) that assesses the child's initiative behavior. (Example question: "Did the child do things for himself"). This subscale score generates a t-score of standardized norms from a sum of the 11-18 items on a 5-point scale (0=Never - 4=Very frequently). Theoretical range of means: 28-72; Actual range of means: 28-72. Higher ratings represent a higher degree of child initiation. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 56 were rated as low (n=110) and participants rating 56 and higher were rated as high (n=118).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions. Lastly, errors in survey branching based on child's age required discarding those responses which reduced the total number of participants analyzed.

The Mother-Child Neglect Scale (MCNS) is a 22-item scale designed to assess caregiving behaviors in four domains: physical, cognitive, supervision, and emotional needs. (Example question: "I make sure my child sees a doctor when he/she needs one"). A total score generated by calculating a mean of the 22 items rated on a 4-point scale (1=Strongly Agree - 4=Strongly Disagree). Theoretical range of means: 1-4; Actual range of means: 1.2-3.9. Lower scores indicate less neglectful behaviors. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 3.65 and below were rated as low (n=139) and participants rating higher than 3.65 were rated as high (n=145).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions.

The CHAOS scale (Confusion, Hubbub, and Order) is a 15-item scale used to measure structure and chaos in the home environment. (Example question: "There is very little commotion in our home"). A total score generated by calculating a mean of all 15 items on a 4-point scale (1=Very much like your own home - 4=Not at all like your own home). Theoretical range of means: 1-4; Actual range of means: 1.0-2.7. Lower scores indicate less chaos. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring 1.5 or below were rated as low (n=151) and participants rating higher than 1.5 were rated as high (n=133).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions.

The Family Resources Scale - Revised is a 40-item scale that assesses the adequacy of family needs in four domains: basic needs, money, time for self, and time for family. (Example question: "How well is the following need being met: House or apartment"). A total count of resources needed out of 40 assessed. Resources were considered needed if the participant indicated the resource was 'Not at all' met, 'A little' met, or 'Sometimes' met (5-point scale: 1=Not at all - 5=Almost always). Theoretical range of means: 0-40; Actual range of means: 0-40. Higher ratings indicating a higher number of resources needed. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants with 9 or fewer needs not met were rated as low (n=152) and participants with 10 and higher needs not met were rated as high (n=132).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions.

The Attachment sub-scale of the Devereaux Early Child Assessment (DECA) is made up of 8-18 items (depending on child's age) that assesses the child's attachment behavior. (Example question: "Did the toddler accept comfort from a familiar adult"). This subscale score generates a t-score of standardized norms from a sum of the 8-18 items on a 5-point scale (0=Never - 4=Very frequently). Theoretical range of means: 28-72; Actual range of means: 28-72. Higher ratings represent a higher degree of child attachment. Because the data were heavily skewed toward the positive end of the scale, the measure was dichotomized into high vs. low based on an approximate median split. Specifically, participants scoring below 52 were rated as low (n=101) and participants rating 52 and higher were rated as high (n=138).

Data for four surveys were corrupted causing the Row population to differ from the Overall population. In addition, Some participants missed or refused to answer questions. Lastly, errors in survey branching based on child's age required discarding those responses which reduced the total number of participants analyzed.

Child welfare services as usual