Fats and oils play important roles in maintaining human nutrition and health through providing energy, essential fatty acids, and acting as modulators of many biological processes (signal transduction, immunity and inflammation). Due to differences in the fatty acid composition and content of antioxidants of individual cooking oils, the degree of oxidative and thermolytic reactions may vary oil by oil. It is lack of human feeding study to investigate the molecular mechanisms on how and which deep-fried oil exerts its adverse effects. The investigators are also lack of biomarkers for monitoring deep-fried oil exposure. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to compare how human body responds differently to several popular uncooked and deep-fried oils with varied fatty acid compositions with respect of oxylipin profile, inflammatory markers, non-targeted metabolomics, and transcriptomics. The investigators will recruit 20 volunteers, provided them once a week the milk shakes prepared from 60g of olive oil, soybean oil, palm oil, camellia oil, tallow (butter), and deep-fried oils of the last 4, respectively; in comparison with a no-fat milk shake control. The experiments lasted for 10 weeks.。Each time; serum, plasma, whole blood and urine samples were collected at baseline, after 2 hours, and after 4 hours. The investigators anticipate to find biomarker(s) for deep-frying, and contribute to the understanding of molecular mechanisms on how deep-fried oils exert adverse effects toward health through integrative omics or so-called system biology approaches.
Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria: