Caregivers are enrolled in the 10-session Parents Make the Difference intervention.

Caregivers assigned to the control group received the 10-session Parents Make the Difference intervention after the study was completed.

The intervention, entitled "Parents Make the Difference," will include 10 sessions. Parents will attend in a group, and sessions will include didactic information, guided discussion, and modeling and practice of new skills. All sessions focus on positive parenting skills, with specific skills across three domains that have strong links to child outcomes: (a) positive, non-physical behavior management strategies, (b) strategies for promoting children's early learning, and (c) strategies, primarily use of bed nets, for preventing malaria in children.

This is a caregiver-report survey measures including items on various parenting practices, including: caregiver-child communication; discipline and behavior management practices; caregiver-child affection and shared activities; caregiver involvement in child's school and educational activities. These items will yield several subscores for these different domains. Some items may also be analyzed as single items, as they measure specific and important outcomes (e.g., use of a harsh discipline strategy)

These items assess parents' confidence in their parenting abilities and their beliefs about caregiving practices. This measure will yield separate scores for self-efficacy and beliefs about caregiving practices. Some items may also be analyzed as single items, as they measure specific and important outcomes (e.g., parents' belief about an aspect of harsh discipline)

This tool assess children's behaviors and emotional well-being in the domains of hyperactivity, anger, aggression, mood, and peer relationships. They will be analyzed as an overall score, and single items may be analyzed for certain behaviors or indicators of emotional well-being.

Caregivers and children in the study will be asked to engage in a play interaction for five minutes, and their verbal interactions will be audio-recorded. Recordings will be coded for specific behaviors. The coding system is adapted from the Dyadic Parent Child Interaction Coding System.

A survey will be used to assess mosquito net usage by household members. Items will be analyzed separately to assess discrete behaviors (e.g., whether child him/herself slept under the net; whether any adult(s) slept under the net)