Effects of Park Golf on Working Memory and Prefrontal Cortex Activation in Older Adults

Does Park Golf Affect Working Memory?: An fNIRS-Based Randomized Controlled Trial in Community-Dwelling Older Adults

This study investigates whether a park golf program can improve working memory and prefrontal cortex activity in community-dwelling older adults. A total of 36 older adults (aged 65-85) were randomly assigned to either a park golf group or a health education group. The park golf group participated in a supervised park golf program (2 sessions per week for 4 weeks, 60 minutes per session), while the health education group attended lectures on healthy aging topics such as nutrition and fall prevention on the same schedule. Before and after the intervention, participants completed cognitive and physical assessments, including the Korean Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K), the Timed Up and Go test, and a spatial working memory task (N-back) performed while brain activity in the prefrontal cortex was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), a non-invasive, radiation-free imaging method. The findings may help establish evidence for community-based physical activity programs, such as park golf, as a strategy to support cognitive health in older adults.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Community-dwelling older adults aged 65 to 85 years, living independently (excluding those residing in nursing facilities or hospitalized)
• Korean version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K) score of 23 or higher (normal cognitive function range)
• Able to walk independently and possess the basic functional capacity required to participate in park golf
• No experience with park golf, or no regular participation in park golf within the past 6 months
• Voluntary written informed consent to participate in the study

Exclusion Criteria:

• History of severe neurological disease (e.g., Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia) or psychiatric disease (e.g., major depressive disorder, schizophrenia)
• Scalp disease, skull abnormality, or history of craniotomy that could affect fNIRS measurement
• Currently taking medications affecting cognitive function (e.g., anticholinergics, antipsychotics)
• Regular participation in high-intensity exercise programs 3 or more times per week
• Physician-prescribed restriction on physical activity
• Severe visual or auditory impairment that would make assessment difficult, even with correction
• Left-handedness (excluded to control for hemispheric dominance in fNIRS measurement)