Effects of Cold-Water and Cold-Air Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference

Effects of Exercising in Cold-Water and Cold-Ambient Air Versus a Thermoneutral Equivalent on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference: A Crossover Study in Healthy Males

This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.

Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear.

This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males.

Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.

Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire.

The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures.

This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Healthy males aged 18-65 years
• Living in the UK
• Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
• Body mass stable (<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
• Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
• Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test
• Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised
• 18-item (TFEQ-R18)
• Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study
• Able to provide written informed consent
• Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments
• Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment

Exclusion Criteria:

• Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
• Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
• Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
• Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
• Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
• Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse
• Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise
• History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour
• Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation
• Unable to fast before experimental sessions
• Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure
• Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies
• Unable to commit to study requirements