Athletes frequently perform high-intensity exercise to improve physical performance and aerobic capacity. However, such training can induce exercise-induced muscle damage, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses that may delay recovery and compromise subsequent training adaptations. Optimizing recovery strategies is therefore essential to maintain performance, reduce injury risk, and support long-term athletic development.

Cordyceps is a medicinal mushroom that contains several bioactive compounds, including cordycepin and polysaccharides, which have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Although previous studies have reported beneficial effects of Cordyceps supplementation on exercise performance and physiological function, limited evidence exists regarding the optimal timing of supplementation relative to exercise.

This study aims to investigate the effects of different Cordyceps supplementation timing strategies on physiological responses and aerobic adaptation following acute and chronic exercise training. Participants will be assigned to receive Cordyceps supplementation before exercise, after exercise, or placebo. The study will evaluate biomarkers of inflammation (IL-6), oxidative stress (MDA), muscle damage (CK), aerobic capacity (VO2max), and neuromuscular performance assessed using countermovement jump (CMJ) testing.

The findings of this study are expected to provide evidence-based recommendations regarding nutritional recovery strategies and supplementation timing to optimize recovery and training adaptation in athletes and physically active individuals.

Background

Recovery is a fundamental component of the training process because physiological adaptation occurs not only during exercise but also during the recovery period following exercise-induced stress. High-intensity exercise is widely used to improve athletic performance and aerobic capacity; however, it is also associated with increased physiological stress, including exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD), oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses. Excessive accumulation of these responses may impair recovery, reduce training quality, increase injury risk, and contribute to non-functional overreaching or overtraining.

Exercise-induced physiological stress is commonly characterized by elevations in inflammatory biomarkers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), muscle damage markers such as creatine kinase (CK), and oxidative stress markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA). Conversely, appropriate recovery interventions may facilitate restoration of physiological homeostasis and support positive training adaptations, including improvements in aerobic capacity.

Cordyceps is a medicinal fungus that contains several biologically active compounds, including cordycepin, polysaccharides, nucleosides, sterols, and phenolic compounds. Experimental and clinical studies have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties of Cordyceps. These mechanisms suggest that Cordyceps supplementation may help attenuate exercise-induced physiological stress while supporting recovery and adaptation processes.

Despite increasing interest in Cordyceps supplementation among athletes, evidence regarding the influence of supplementation timing remains limited. Most previous studies have focused primarily on supplementation efficacy without specifically evaluating whether administration before exercise or after exercise produces differential physiological effects. Understanding the role of supplementation timing may contribute to the development of more effective recovery strategies in sports science.

Objectives

The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of Cordyceps supplementation timing on exercise-induced physiological responses and aerobic adaptation following acute and chronic exercise training.

Specific objectives include:

1. To compare the effects of pre-exercise and post-exercise Cordyceps supplementation on inflammatory response, muscle damage, and oxidative stress following acute exercise.
2. To compare the effects of pre-exercise and post-exercise Cordyceps supplementation on inflammatory response, muscle damage, oxidative stress, and aerobic capacity following chronic exercise training.
3. To compare physiological responses among pre-exercise supplementation, post-exercise supplementation, and placebo groups.
4. To evaluate the interaction between supplementation timing and exercise exposure on selected physiological biomarkers.
5. To investigate the relationship between changes in oxidative stress, muscle damage, and aerobic adaptation.

Study Rationale

The scientific rationale of this study is based on the hypothesis that the timing of nutrient delivery may influence physiological responses to exercise. Supplementation administered before exercise may enhance physiological preparedness and reduce exercise-induced stress, whereas supplementation administered after exercise may facilitate recovery and tissue regeneration processes. Identifying the optimal timing strategy may improve recovery efficiency and maximize training adaptation.

Study Outcomes

The study will evaluate biomarkers associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, and muscle damage, including IL-6, MDA, and CK. Aerobic adaptation will be assessed through maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). In addition to biochemical markers and aerobic capacity, neuromuscular performance will be assessed using countermovement jump (CMJ) testing performed on a validated VALD system. CMJ variables will be used to evaluate lower-body power output and neuromuscular recovery status following acute and chronic exercise exposure.

Potential Significance

This study is expected to generate novel evidence regarding the role of Cordyceps supplementation timing in athletic recovery and adaptation. The findings may support the development of evidence-based nutritional strategies for athletes, coaches, sports scientists, and healthcare professionals. Furthermore, the study may contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between oxidative stress, inflammation, muscle damage, and aerobic adaptation during exercise training.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Male or female participants aged 19-21 years.
• Students enrolled in the Sport Coaching Education Program (Pendidikan Kepelatihan Olahraga).
• Apparently healthy and free from known cardiovascular, metabolic, respiratory, neuromuscular, or musculoskeletal disorders that could affect participation in exercise training.
• Regularly participate in physical exercise at least three times per week during the previous three months.
• Willing to comply with all study procedures, exercise protocols, supplementation schedules, and assessment sessions.
• Provide written informed consent before participation.

Exclusion Criteria:

• Current injury or musculoskeletal condition that limits participation in exercise training.
• History of cardiovascular disease, uncontrolled hypertension, diabetes mellitus, respiratory disease, or other medical conditions that may increase exercise-related risk.
• Use of antioxidant supplements, herbal supplements, ergogenic aids, or anti-inflammatory medications within four weeks prior to study enrollment.
• Known allergy or hypersensitivity to Cordyceps or any component of the study supplements.
• Smoking or excessive alcohol consumption during the study period.
• Failure to comply with supplementation or exercise protocols.
• Participation in another research study during the study period.
• Participants presenting acute infection, fever, or inflammatory conditions within two weeks prior to baseline assessment.

Individual participant data (IPD) that underlie the results reported in publications, after de-identification, will be made available to qualified researchers upon reasonable request. Data sharing will be permitted for scientifically sound research purposes following publication of the primary study results. Requests for access to the data will be reviewed by the principal investigator and must comply with institutional and ethical requirements. Supporting documents, including the study protocol and statistical analysis plan, may also be made available upon request.

Individual participant data (IPD), study protocol, and statistical analysis plan will be available beginning after publication of the primary and secondary study results and will remain available for 5 years thereafter.

De-identified individual participant data (IPD), study protocol, and statistical analysis plan will be available to qualified researchers upon reasonable request. Access requests must include a scientifically sound research proposal and the intended use of the data. Requests will be reviewed by the principal investigator to ensure compliance with ethical, legal, and institutional requirements. Approved researchers will be granted access to the relevant data and supporting documents through direct communication with the principal investigator and, when appropriate, under a data-sharing agreement.

Participants, investigators, and outcome assessors will be blinded to group allocation. Cordyceps and placebo capsules will be identical in appearance, packaging, and administration procedures. Allocation codes will be maintained by an independent researcher and will not be disclosed until completion of data collection and primary analyses.