This research project aims to design and evaluate an innovative model for childcare provision in rural Kenya that emphasizes child development and economic participation for women in a cost-effective manner. Using a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design, the project will examine the impact of allowing children in Tharaka Nithi County (TNC) in Kenya to attend pre-school from the age of 3 versus the current early childhood development programming in Kenya which is for children aged 4 and above. The potential to offer early childhood development care for 3-year-olds is a key investment to be considered with high potential for expansion across Kenya and beyond. The intervention will introduce an enhanced curriculum for pre-primary 1 (PP1) and will be adapted for the Kenyan context and include coaching of teachers and caregivers. Using a rigorous research design, and by collecting data from both children and parents, the project will capture data on child development, employment, income, intra-household dynamics and broader women empowerment indicators. The project seeks to impact policies aimed at advancing both child development as well as women's economic empowerment in Kenya.

The PP1 intervention consists of six main components: A. Expanding admission to 3-year-olds in the current preschools (they currently start at 4), B. Adapting the government curriculum to accommodate the 3-year-old children (as the curriculum currently starts at 4 years) C. Developing teacher activity guides to support curriculum implementation for both 3- and 4-year-olds, D. Providing developmentally appropriate teaching and learning materials (e.g. picture books, puzzles, games), E. Adding an extra teacher in the preschool class (PP1), and F. Training the teachers how to use the activity guides and learning materials and how to use evidence-based and developmentally-appropriate instructional strategies through teacher-training workshops and in-class coaching.

The experimental design involves a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) to assess the impact of the Tharaka Nithi County Preschool Program on child development and women's labor supply. The intervention targets 3-4-year-olds, utilizing the existing infrastructure of PP1 (pre-primary 1) in selected public schools.

Participants were recruited in 2 cohorts:

Cohort 1: Randomization will take place by computer following a census of eligible households (those with children 2y8mo-3y6mo at baseline who have expressed willingness to participate) within a radius of 3km from the 118 schools. Within the 3km catchment area of the schools 15 children will be selected and their families consented for the intervention and data collection. Following this, within the catchment group of the 60 treatment schools 5 children are randomly admitted to the treatment schools and another 5 are randomly selected as controls within the same communities. Within the catchment area of the control schools 5 children and their families are randomly selected for observation. Data is collected from the families (mother and father - when present), and the children (assessments) at baseline, midline, and at the end of the intervention. In addition, within each school (treatment and control) 5 4-year olds are recruited. They are also subject to the intervention, since they are in the same classrooms as the 3-year-olds. However, the non-treated 4-year-olds are still attending PP1 class but in a non-treated school.

Cohort 2: The same treatment and control schools are involved. Only 3 year olds are recruited (2y8mo-3y6mo at baseline). Investigators will identify the 5 closest consenting families with 3-year-olds to each of the treatment schools. If it is a treatment school, the 5 children are admitted to the PP1 in that school. The five children and their families in the radius of the control school are kept for observation. Consenting takes place before treatment status is revealed. Data is collected from the families (mother and father - when present), and the children (assessments) at baseline and at the end of the intervention.

Preschool teacher interviews and classroom observations will be conducted after 1 year of intervention and again at the end of the second year of intervention in all study schools.

Inclusion Criteria:

School level:

• schools must offer PP1 classes
• schools must have sufficient available capacity and some level of infrastructure provision to support an additional 5-8 children (3-year-olds), and
• should not have more than five 3-year-olds already in attendance of the PP1 class in the year prior to the intervention, nor a playgroup offered by the school

Household/child level:

• have children who will turn approximately 3 years old by the start of the academic year
• have demonstrated a willingness to send their children to the local school for the relevant fee.
• households within a 3 km radius of all eligible schools.

Exclusion Criteria:

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