Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and most aggressive primary brain cancer in adults. GBM is more common in men than in women, with a male-to-female ratio of 1.6. Furthermore, being male is associated with a poorer prognosis. These data suggest that sex and/or sexual hormones and more specifically androgens may play a role in the initiation, the growth, and the resistance to treatments of GBM.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, with an annual incidence in France of approximately 2,500-3,500 new cases. Despite intensive multimodal treatment, the median overall survival remains less than 18 months.

For reasons that are not yet fully understood, GBM occurs more frequently in men than in women, with a male-to-female ratio of approximately 1.6. Moreover, male sex appears to be associated with a poorer prognosis, as men diagnosed with GBM tend to have shorter survival compared with women. Importantly, such sex-based differences are not restricted to GBM; with few exceptions, they are also observed in most non-hormone-dependent systemic cancers.

These epidemiological and clinical observations suggest that sex and/or sex steroid hormones-particularly androgens-may contribute to GBM biology. The effects of androgens are primarily mediated through their binding to the androgen receptor (AR). Preliminary data indicate that AR is expressed not only by GBM tumor cells but also by cells within the tumor microenvironment, especially cells of the myeloid lineage, including microglia and tumor-associated macrophages.

In addition, some studies have shown that certain GBM cells are capable of producing dihydrotestosterone. Taken together, these findings support a potential role for androgen signaling in modulating both tumor cells and the immune microenvironment in GBM. They also provide a rationale for evaluating anti-androgen therapies, either alone or in combination with other treatment modalities, including immunotherapies, in patients with GBM.

Further support for this hypothesis comes from studies in systemic cancers. In prostate cancer, for example, anti-androgen therapy has been shown to increase cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration. Combinations of hormone therapy and immunotherapy have been tested in preclinical models, demonstrating reduced androgen-induced immunosuppression and enhanced sensitivity to immune checkpoint inhibitors, an approach currently being explored in clinical trials. Moreover, in melanoma-a non-hormone-dependent cancer such as GBM-AR silencing increases cytotoxic T-cell infiltration, reduces regulatory T-cell infiltration, and decreases the expression of immune inhibitory molecules such as LAG-3 and PD-1.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Patients aged ≥18 and ≤55
• Newly diagnosed GBM
• Surgery with complete or incomplete resection
• Eligible for chemoradiotherapy
• No active immune disorders
• Supratentorial location on MRI and no signs of meningeal dissemination
• Tumor sample (taken as part of treatment) available for study (fresh frozen tissue)
• Patient informed and consented to participate in the study
• Affiliation with a social security system or beneficiary

Exclusion Criteria:

• Active infection at the time of sampling or within the previous 14 days
• Active immune disorders
• Known patients with low-grade glioma that has undergone anaplastic transformation
• Patients treated with corticosteroids
• Patients participating in interventional research
• Patients under legal protection, guardianship, or conservatorship.
• Pregnant or breastfeeding women
• Individuals under AME

The procedures carried out with the French data privacy authority (CNIL, Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés) do not provide for the transmission of the database, nor do the information and consent documents signed by the patients.

Consultation by the editorial board or interested researchers of individual participant data that underlie the results reported in the article after deidentification may nevertheless be considered, subject to prior determination of the terms and conditions of such consultation and in respect for compliance with the applicable regulations.

Beginning 3 months and ending 3 years following article publication. Requests out of these time frame can also be submitted to the sponsor

Researchers who provide a methodologically sound proposal.