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This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players.
A total of 180 participants were randomly assigned to either a VR training group (n=90) using Meta Quest 2 headsets or a traditional training control group (n=90). The VR group received immersive tennis training twice weekly for 60 minutes per session, while the control group received equivalent traditional coaching.
Primary outcomes included self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use, measured at baseline and post-intervention. Secondary analyses examined whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediated the relationship between VR training and intention to use.
The study aimed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of VR technology in sports training and to elucidate the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training benefits.
Background:
Virtual reality (VR) technology has emerged as a promising tool for sports training, offering immersive environments that simulate real-world athletic scenarios. Tennis represents an ideal sport for VR training applications due to its technical complexity, spatial demands, and the importance of anticipatory skills. Despite growing adoption of VR in sports contexts, the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training effectiveness remain insufficiently understood.
Theoretical Framework:
This study was grounded in four theoretical perspectives: (1) Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, proposing that VR training enhances confidence through mastery experiences; (2) Csikszentmihalyi's Flow Theory, suggesting VR environments facilitate optimal psychological states; (3) Embodied Cognition Theory, emphasizing that cognitive processes are rooted in bodily interactions; and (4) the Technology Acceptance Model, providing a framework for understanding intention to use technology.
Objectives:
Primary objectives were to determine whether VR tennis training produces greater improvements in self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use compared to traditional training. Secondary objectives investigated whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediate the effect of VR training on intention to use.
Methods:
A parallel-group, single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted at Hezhou University, Guangxi, China. Eligible participants were undergraduate students aged 18-26 years enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs with at least two semesters of tennis instruction. Participants were randomly assigned using computer-generated random numbers with stratification by sex and year of study.
Intervention:
The VR group received 8 weeks of immersive tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session, 16 sessions total). Training included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). The control group received matched traditional tennis training with the same frequency, duration, and content structure.
Outcome Measures:
Self-efficacy was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Flow experience was assessed using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Embodied cognition was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires. Intention to use was assessed with a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model. Sport motivation (SMS-II) was measured as a covariate.
Statistical Analysis:
Between-group differences were examined using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for baseline scores and sport motivation. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g. Parallel mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro with bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (10,000 samples).
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| Label | Type | Description | Intervention Names |
|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Tennis Training | Experimental | Participants received 8 weeks of immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 headsets. Training sessions were conducted twice weekly, each lasting 60 minutes (16 sessions total). Sessions included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). |
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| Traditional Tennis Training | Active Comparator | Participants received 8 weeks of traditional tennis training matched for frequency (twice weekly), duration (60 minutes/session), and content structure. Sessions included physical warm-up (10 min), technical skill drills (25 min), point play and match simulation (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). |
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| Name | Type | Description | Arm Group Labels | Other Names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Tennis Training | Behavioral | Immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays. The VR system provided real-time feedback on stroke mechanics, ball trajectory, and court positioning. Training included progressive difficulty adjustment based on individual performance. Participants practiced forehand, backhand, serve techniques, and tactical decision-making against virtual opponents. |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Self-Efficacy | Tennis-specific self-efficacy measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Items assess confidence in performing tennis skills and managing competitive situations. Responses on 5-point Likert scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy. Score range: 1-5. | Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention) |
| Flow Experience | Flow during training measured using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Items assess challenge-skill balance, concentration, sense of control, and intrinsic enjoyment. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater flow experience. Score range: 1-5. | Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention) |
| Embodied Cognition | Embodied cognition during training measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires (Wilson 2002; Gonzalez-Franco 2018). Items assess sense of presence, body ownership, and sense of agency. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater embodied cognition. Score range: 1-5. | Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention) |
| Intention to Use | Intention to continue using the training method measured using a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989). Items assess willingness to use, recommend, and prefer the training method. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater intention to use. Score range: 1-5. | Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention) |
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Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria:
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| Name | Affiliation | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Rui Liu, PhD Candidate | Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia | Principal Investigator |
| Rohayu Hami, PhD | Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia | Study Director |
| Facility | Status | City | State | ZIP | Country | Contacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hezhou University | Hezhou | Guangxi | 542899 | China |
This study was conducted as part of a doctoral dissertation. The informed consent obtained from participants did not include provisions for sharing individual-level data with external researchers.
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Participants were randomly assigned to either the VR tennis training group or the traditional tennis training control group in a 1:1 ratio, with both groups receiving training concurrently over the 8-week intervention period.
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Outcome assessors who administered questionnaires and collected data were blinded to participant group allocation. Due to the nature of the interventions, participants and training providers could not be blinded.
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| Traditional Tennis Training | Behavioral | Standard tennis training delivered by qualified coaches on regular tennis courts. Training included ball feeding machines, partner practice, and coach-led instruction for technical skills, as well as competitive rallies for tactical application. |
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