Patients with no history of cigarette use were assigned to the non-smoking group. Gingivitis was diagnosed based on the presence of bleeding on probing in at least 10% of all assessed sites and the absence of attachment and bone loss.

Smoking status was categorized as follows: patients in the smoking group were those who smoked more than ten cigarettes daily and had a smoking history exceeding five years. Gingivitis was diagnosed based on the presence of bleeding on probing in at least 10% of all assessed sites and the absence of attachment and bone loss.

Smoking status was categorized as follows: patients in the smoking group were those who smoked more than ten cigarettes daily and had a smoking history exceeding five years. The classification of periodontitis stages was primarily based on clinical attachment loss (CAL), radiographic bone loss, and tooth loss criteria. Specifically, CAL of 1-2 mm was classified as periodontitis stage I, 3-4 mm as stage II (mild moderate periodontitis.)

Patients with no history of cigarette use were assigned to the non-smoking group. The classification of periodontitis stages was primarily based on clinical attachment loss (CAL). Specifically, CAL of 1-2 mm was classified as stage I, 3-4 mm as stage II (mild moderate periodontitis).

The microarchitecture of trabecular bone was analyzed by measuring bone morphometric parameters (BMPs) using the BoneJ plugin of the software.

Degree of Anisotropy (DA): This parameter assesses the directional characteristics of trabecular bone. A DA value of 1 indicates an isotropic structure, while values above 1 indicate anisotropy. DA is calculated as the ratio of the longest mean intercept length vector to the shortest.

Bone Volume Fraction (BV/TV): Representing the ratio of bone volume to total volume within the ROI, BV/TV indicates bone density.

Trabecular Separation (Tb.Sp): Representing the mean distance between adjacent trabeculae, this parameter is also assessed using three-dimensional techniques.

Trabecular Thickness (Tb.Th): This parameter indicates the average thickness of the trabeculae, obtained through direct three-dimensional assessment methods.

A single calibrated operator (I.C.) performed the periodontal assessment utilizing an intraoral mirror and William's periodontal probe. Plaque Index (PI): The PI assesses the thickness of plaque along the gingival margin. After drying the teeth, the examiner visually inspects the surfaces of the teeth. Scores are assigned based on the presence and thickness of plaque on the gingival third of the tooth surface, usually on a scale from 0 (no plaque) to 3 (abundant plaque accumulation).