The goal of this clinical trial is to examine whether stuttering is associated with a tendency to attend more quickly or for longer durations to threat-related information in the environment (threat-related attention bias). The main questions it aims to answer are:

Do adults who stutter, relative to adults who do not stutter, attend to threat-related stimuli more than neutral information? Are attentional biases observed across different types of threat or are they specific to threats related to stuttering experiences? Do measures of attention bias explain individual differences in psychological reactions among adults who stutter?

The goal of the project is to examine threat-related attentional processes associated with stuttering. In Aim 1, investigators will establish differences in attention bias (AB) in adults who do and do not stutter and the processing stage at which differences emerge. In Aim 2, investigators will compare AB effects across different categories of threat stimuli to determine whether threat-related AB in adults who stutter is general or disorder-specific. In Aim 3, the investigators examine the role of AB as a causal factor mediating effects of individual risk-factors (related to temperament and attention control) on stuttering impact and anticipation. Participants will include 35 adults who stutter and 35 adults who stutter between the ages of 18-30 years, all meeting specified eligibility criteria. All participants will complete three experimental tasks for measuring AB: (1) a free-viewing task, (2) dot-probe task, and (3) emotional Stroop task. Study procedures will be administered over two sessions (2-2.5 hours each) scheduled within three weeks of each other. Key outcomes will include reaction time and eye-tracking measures, which will be used to extract multiple AB indices. Data will be analyzed via mixed-effects regression analysis with a random intercept for subject and maximal converging random-slopes structure. Age, gender, socioeconomic status and various measures used for inclusion purposes will be included as covariates. Mediation analyses will assess four relationships (Temperament -> Stuttering impact, Temperament -> Anticipation, Attention control -> Stuttering impact, and Attention control -> Anticipation), with AB as the mediator variable in each analysis.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Speaks English as their primary language
• Normal hearing (based on pure tone screening)
• Normal or corrected vision (based on report)
• Normal color vision (based on Ishihara Test, Concise Edition)
• Nonverbal intelligence within at least average range based on Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, 4th Edition
• Expressive language within at least average range score based on Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test

Additional inclusion criteria for adults who stutter:

• Self-identification as a person who stutters
• Score of at least 11 (mild stuttering) on Stuttering Severity Index, 4th Edition

Exclusion Criteria:

• Reported significant medical history
• Psychological or emotional disorder
• History of frank neurological injury
• Known speech, language, or learning disorder(s) other than stuttering
• Reading difficulties
• Score within clinically significant range for ADHD on Adults ADHD Self-Rating Scale
• Score within clinically significant range for depression on Beck Depression Inventory
• Score within clinically significant range for anxiety on State-Trait Anxiety Inventory

Data will be made freely and publicly available on OSF (https://osf.io) together with our publications, with prior Institutional Review Board approval. Archived data will also be made available to other researchers upon request (by emailing the PI) and without cost. A signed data-sharing agreement will be required for researchers to access data; the agreement will stipulate that shared data must be used solely for the purpose of research, must not be transferred to or shared with others, must not be manipulated for the purpose of identifying subjects, and that the planned research must be reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board.

Individuals reviewing and coding data will not be aware of group status or diagnoses for participants.