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In this study the sustained effect of food texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of ultra-processed foods on energy intake and body composition changes will be investigated.
Rationale: Several observational studies have shown that the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) is associated with higher energy intake and obesity rates. However, the high eating rate of UPF might cause its high energy intake instead of the industrial processing level itself. There is a positive relationship between the eating rate and oro-sensory exposure of foods and subsequent energy intake. Food texture modifies eating rate and through that the energy intake of foods. It is shown that harder, chunkier, more viscous, and more voluminous foods decrease eating rate of foods and thus decrease energy intake. So far, research on food texture and energy intake has only been performed for one meal or one day and it is unknown if food texture and eating rate have a sustained effect on energy intake. Knowledge on the sustained effect of food texture differences could be used for strategies to drive or limit energy intake.
Objective: The primary objective is to determine the sustained effect of food texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of UPF on energy intake. The secondary objective is to determine the effect of texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of UPF on body composition changes.
Study design: The study has a randomized crossover design with two treatment arms. All participants receive both conditions (1. slow test breakfast and dinners consisting of UPF and 2. fast test breakfast and dinners consisting of UPF for twelve subsequent days) and are their own control (within subject effects).
Study population: Healthy Dutch speaking adults (n=20) between 18-55 years old with a BMI between 18.5-30 kg/m2.
Intervention: Participants will join two test periods, each consisting out of twelve days. During the test periods they will visit the eating behaviour lab where they receive ad libitum breakfast and dinner meals. During meal consumption participants are video recorded to determine eating behaviour. Standardized fixed portion lunch meals and snacks will be provided on-the-go. On weekend days participants will receive pre-packed meals. In one test period participants will receive meals consisting of UPF that have a hard texture (slow eating rate) and in the other period (randomized order) they will receive meals consisting of UPF with a soft texture (fast eating rate). The order in which participants will receive the meals within each condition will be (block) randomized.
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| Label | Type | Description | Intervention Names |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fast UPF meals | Experimental | Meals consisting of UPF with textures that are consumed fast |
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| Slow UPF meals | Experimental | Meals consisting of UPF with textures that are consumed slow |
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| Name | Type | Description | Arm Group Labels | Other Names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ad libitum breakfast and dinner meals for 12 days | Other | Ad libitum portions of breakfast and dinner meals served at the eating behaviour lab |
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| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Average daily energy intake (kcal/day) | Daily energy intake across 12 days for each diet | Two periods of 12 days |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Body weight (kg) | Body weight (kg) measured using in duplicate using a weighing scale | Two periods of 12 days |
| Fat free mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis | Fat free mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis (kg and %) |
| Measure | Description | Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
| Subjective hunger | Hunger measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Subjective fullness |
Inclusion Criteria:
Exclusion Criteria:
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| Facility | Status | City | State | ZIP | Country | Contacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wageningen University, Human Nutrition Department | Wageningen | Gelderland | 6708 WE | Netherlands |
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| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D005247 | Feeding Behavior |
| ID | Term |
|---|---|
| D001522 | Behavior, Animal |
| D001519 | Behavior |
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| Two periods of 12 days |
| Fat free mass measured with skinfold measurements | Fat free mass measured with skinfold measurements (kg and %) | Two periods of 12 days |
| Fat mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis | Fat mass measured wit bioelectrical impedance analysis (kg and %) | Two periods of 12 days |
| Fat mass measured with skinfold measurements | Fat mass measured with skinfold measurements (kg and %) | Two periods of 12 days |
| Waist and hip circumference (cm) | Waist and hip circumference will be measured in duplicate using measuring tape | Two periods of 12 days |
| BMI | Obtained by body weight (kg; measured using a weighing scale) and height (cm; measured using a stadiometer) | Two periods of 12 days |
Fullness measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line
| Two periods of 12 days |
| Subjective desire to eat | Desire to eat measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Subjective prospective consumption | Prospective consumption measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Liking | Liking of meals after one bite and after meal consumption will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Flavour intensity | Flavour intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Sweetness | Sweetness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Sourness | Sourness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Saltiness | Saltiness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Hardness | Hardness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Firmness | Firmness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Thickness | Thickness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Chewiness | Chewiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Dryness | Dryness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Cohesiveness | Cohesiveness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Elasticity | Elasticity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Springiness | Springiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Stickiness | Stickiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Familiarity | Familiarity (after one bite and after the meal) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Expected satiation | Expected satiation (after one bite) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Desire to eat the meal | Desire to eat the meal (after one bite and after the meal) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line | Two periods of 12 days |
| Reasons for eating cessation | Reasons for eating cessation assessed with the Reasons Individuals Stop Eating Questionnaire (RISE-Q) | Two periods of 12 days |
| Eating rate (g/min) | Eating rate (g/min) measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Number of chews (chews/gram and chewes/bite) | Number of chews measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Number of bites | Number of bites measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Bite size | Bite size (gram/bite) measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Oral processing duration (minutes) | Oral processing duration (minutes) measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Oro-sensory exposure time (s/g) | Oro-sensory exposure time (s/g) measured with video recording and automated video analysis | Two periods of 12 days |
| Physical activity | Energy expenditure will be measured using ActiGraph activity monitors | Two periods of 12 days |
| Energy expenditure | Physical activity will be measured using ActiGraph activity monitors | Two periods of 12 days |
| Energy intake during wash-out period | Energy (kcal) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period | Period of 16 days |
| Macro-nutrient intake during wash-out period | Macro-nutrient intake (g) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period | Period of 16 days |
| Ultra-processed food intake during wash-out period | UPF intake (%) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period | Period of 16 days |
| Habitual energy intake | Energy (kcal) measured with a food frequency questionnaire | One hour |
| Habitual macro-nutrient intake | Macro-nutrient (g) measured with a food frequency questionnaire | One hour |
| Habitual ultra-processed food intake | UPF intake (%) measured with a food frequency questionnaire | One hour |
| Habitual physical activity | Habitual physical activity (MET-min/week) measured using the short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) | Ten minutes |
| Habitual energy expenditure | Habitual energy expenditure (kcal/week) measured using the short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) | Ten minutes |
| Self-reported eating rate | Self-reported eating rate measured using the question "How would you describe your eating rate compared with others?" which can be answered on a five-point Likert scale ('very slow', 'slow', 'average', 'fast' or 'very fast') | One minute |
| Restrained eating, emotional eating and external eating | The level of restrained, emotional, and external eating assessed with the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) consisting out of 33 questions. | Thirty minutes |
| Diet satisfaction | The Diet Satisfaction Questionnaire (DSat-28) consists out of five scales accessed by 28 statements about the characteristics of the lifestyle and attitudes of individuals that reflect satisfaction within the diets | Ten minutes |
| Appetitive traits | The Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ) will be used to characterize the appetitive traits of the participants (Hunot et al., 2016). The questionnaire consists out of 35 statements which can be scored from "Strongly agree" (1) to 'Strongly disagree" (5). The statements are summarized into the scales 'Enjoyment of food', 'Emotional over-eating', 'emotional under-eating', 'Food fussiness', 'Food responsiveness', 'Hunger', 'Slowness in eating', and 'Satiety responsiveness'. | Ten minutes |