Primary high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing has become first line screening for cervical cancer in high-income countries. The feasibility of this approach in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is less clear, as is the role of HPV testing among women living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The proposed study seeks to evaluate the accuracy of cervical cancer screening algorithms using primary HPV testing followed by various forms of visual evaluation, including visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), colposcopy and HPV genotype restriction for the detection of high-grade cervical dysplasia, using histology as the gold standard. We will validate the AmpFire Assay for HPV self-sampling in our setting. We will evaluate optimal screening intervals in women living with HIV (WLHIV) in an HPV-based cervical cancer screening program and compare triage strategies for positive HPV results at WHO recommended screening intervals for WLHIV. We also seek to understand in-depth the attitudes, acceptability and preferences regarding cervical cancer screening, HPV testing, and self-sampling, for women in Botswana through interviews of a sub-set of women recruited for the cervical cancer screening study. Finally, we will analyze the cost of two-stage cervical cancer screening algorithms using high-risk HPV testing in Botswana.

Inclusion Criteria:

1. Cis-gender female or transgender male (must have a cervix)
2. ≥25 years of age
3. Competent to understand study procedures and give informed consent.

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Currently pregnant (as diagnostic procedures for cervical cancer are often deferred during pregnancy)
2. Previous hysterectomy
3. Previous diagnosis of cervical cancer

Cis-gender female or transgender male are eligible if they have a cervix.

Data will be made available upon reasonable request with appropriate data transfer agreements in place.