These subjects receive $20 each month for 76 months via debit card.

Executive Function measured by Minnesota Executive Function Scale. We analyze standard scores.

Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report.

Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS); score range: 0-100; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS); score range: 0-100; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention task. Score range: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance.Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

National Institutes of Health and Northwestern University (2006-2023). NIH Toolbox® for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Administrator's Manual. NIHToolbox.org.

Gershon, R. C., Wagster, M. V., Hendrie, H. C., Fox, N. A., Cook, K. F., & Nowinski, C. J. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S2-S6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e5f Weintraub S, Bauer PJ, Zelazo PD, Wallner-Allen K, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Slotkin J, Blitz DL, Carlozzi NE, Havlik RJ, Beaumont JL, Mungas D, Manly JJ, Borosh BG, Nowinski CJ, Gershon RC. I. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): introduction and pediatric data. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2013 Aug;78(4):1-15. doi: 10.1111/mono.12031. PMID: 23952199

Measured by the NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention task. Score range: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance.Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

National Institutes of Health and Northwestern University (2006-2023). NIH Toolbox® for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Administrator's Manual. NIHToolbox.org.

Gershon, R. C., Wagster, M. V., Hendrie, H. C., Fox, N. A., Cook, K. F., & Nowinski, C. J. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S2-S6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e5f Weintraub S, Bauer PJ, Zelazo PD, Wallner-Allen K, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Slotkin J, Blitz DL, Carlozzi NE, Havlik RJ, Beaumont JL, Mungas D, Manly JJ, Borosh BG, Nowinski CJ, Gershon RC. I. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): introduction and pediatric data. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2013 Aug;78(4):1-15. doi: 10.1111/mono.12031. PMID: 23952199

Measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) picture memory subtest. Picture Memory score range: 0-35, higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.We pre-register three scores (MEFS, Flanker, Picture Memory),with a plan to do a confirmatory factor analysis and pre-register the impact on the common factor.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Measured by Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children: 5th Edition (WISC-V) subtest Digit Span. Score Range 0-54. Higher scores indicate better performance. We will pre-register three scores (MEFS, Flanker, Digit Span),with a plan to do a confirmatory factor analysis and pre-register the impact on the common factor. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.

Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271.

Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below, which are part of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS):

1. Do you have any concerns about how your child behaves? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little)
2. Do you have any concerns about how your child gets along with others? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997.

Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). We analyze a preregistered index (sum of raw scores on 4 subscales: Anxiety/Depression, Aggressive Behavior, Attention Problems, and Emotionally Reactive).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271.

Measured by the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM), assesses attentional, behavioral, and internalizing problems in children. 19 questions and answer choices. Score range: 0-38; higher scores indicate more behavioral problems. Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanova, M. Y., & Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.: ASEBA.

Measured by the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM), assesses attentional, behavioral, and internalizing problems in children. 19 questions and answer choices. Score range: 0-38; higher scores indicate more behavioral problems. Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanova, M. Y., & Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.: ASEBA.

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG).

Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summing across alpha, beta, and gamma bands, from 7 to 45 Hz. The composite will reflect the sum of power values (μV2) for each 1-Hz frequency bin between 7 and 45 Hz. Please see statistical analysis plan for more details.

References:

Tomalski, P., et al. (2013); Otero, G. A., et. al (2003); Marshall, P. J., et.al. (2004)

Troller-Renfree, S. V., et. al. (2022). The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(5).

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG). Ages 6 and 8 Primary hypothesis: Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite index of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summed across alpha, beta, and gamma bands (defined as between 7 and 45 Hz). This frequency composite index sums absolute power (μV2) across all single-Hz intervals in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma bands (7-45 Hz). We hypothesize that, in the eyes-closed condition, the high-cash gift group will show more power in this composite relative to the low-cash gift group. One-tailed t-tests will be used to test this directional hypothesis. See the Statistical Analysis Plan (Phase 2) for additional details and references.

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG). Ages 6 and 8 Primary hypothesis: Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite index of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summed across alpha, beta, and gamma bands (defined as between 7 and 45 Hz). This frequency composite index sums absolute power (μV2) across all single-Hz intervals in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma bands (7-45 Hz). We hypothesize that, in the eyes-closed condition, the high-cash gift group will show more power in this composite relative to the low-cash gift group. One-tailed t-tests will be used to test this directional hypothesis. See the Statistical Analysis Plan (Phase 2) for additional details and references.

Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome. (3 questions asked)

Reference:

Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24.

Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 14. Higher score indicates a worse outcome.

Reference:

Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Passage Comprehension. Score range: 0-52. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement: Applied Problems. Score range: 0-56; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement: Applied Problems. Score range: 0-56; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) fluid reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: picture concepts (score range: 0-27; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (score range: 0-26; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Note: The Picture Concept subtest had to be dropped on 9/17/2024 due to floor effects.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Measured by the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II) perceptual reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: block design (score range: up to 8 years old: 0-57; > 9 yo: 0-71; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (up to 8 years old: 0-24; > 9 yo: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.

Child nail samples will be collected to yield a measure of the concentration of cortisol in pg/mg (picograms per milligram). To ensure cortisol levels are within an expected range, values above 500 and equal to or less than 0 will be assigned a missing value. To account for potential outliers, values below 500 will be truncated at the 99th percentile. Cortisol values will be log-transformed. We hypothesize the high-cash gift group will have lower cortisol values when compared to the low-cash gift group. If both fingernail and toenail are collected we will control for whether fingernail or toenail.

Reference: Phillips, R., Kraeuter, A. K., McDermott, B., Lupien, S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2021). Human nail cortisol as a retrospective biomarker of chronic stress: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 123, 104903.

Child nail samples will be collected to yield a measure of the concentration of cortisol in pg/mg (picograms per milligram). To ensure cortisol levels are within an expected range, values above 500 and equal to or less than 0 will be assigned a missing value. To account for potential outliers, values below 500 will be truncated at the 99th percentile. Cortisol values will be log-transformed. We hypothesize the high-cash gift group will have lower cortisol values when compared to the low-cash gift group. If both fingernail and toenail are collected we will control for whether fingernail or toenail.

Reference: Phillips, R., Kraeuter, A. K., McDermott, B., Lupien, S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2021). Human nail cortisol as a retrospective biomarker of chronic stress: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 123, 104903.

NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Age-corrected standardized score. We expect a higher value of the maternal Flanker score for the high-cash gift group than the low-cash gift mothers. Higher scores indicate better performance. Prior to the Flanker administration, respondent/mother will be asked to listen and reflect for a minute on these questions: "Imagine that an unforeseen event requires of you an immediate $1,000 expense. Are there ways in which you may be able to come up with that amount of money on a very short notice? How would you go about it? How stressful would it be to manage this?

Gershon et al. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3) S2-S6.

Slotkin J, et al. (2012) NIH Toolbox Scoring and Interpretation Guide (Northwestern and NIH).

Zelazo PD, et al. (2013) II. NIH Toolbox cognition battery (CB): Measuring executive function and attention. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 78:16-33.

NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Age-corrected standardized score. We expect a higher value of the maternal Flanker score for the high-cash gift group than the low-cash gift mothers. Higher scores indicate better performance. Prior to the Flanker administration, respondent/mother will be asked to listen and reflect for a minute on these questions: "Imagine that an unforeseen event requires of you an immediate $1,000 expense. Are there ways in which you may be able to come up with that amount of money on a very short notice? How would you go about it? How stressful would it be to manage this?

Gershon et al. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3) S2-S6.

Slotkin J, et al. (2012) NIH Toolbox Scoring and Interpretation Guide (Northwestern and NIH).

Zelazo PD, et al. (2013) II. NIH Toolbox cognition battery (CB): Measuring executive function and attention. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 78:16-33.

Communicative Development measured by Short Form Versions of MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Conceptual score of sum of words correctly identified in either Spanish of English. Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 26. Higher values indicate a better outcome.

Reference:

Fenson, L. (2000). Short-form versions of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 95 - 116.

Measured by the pencil tap test. This item was dropped on September 13, 2022, due to evidence of floor effects, and consistent reports from research staff that children were not understanding the instructions.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 16. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

References:

Diamond, A., & Taylor, C. (1996). Development of an aspect of executive control: development of the abilities to remember what I said and to "do as I say, not as I do". Developmental psychobiology, 29(4), 315-334.

Behavior measured by NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development Mother-Child Interaction Task (positive/negative mood, activity level, sustained attention, positive engagement). Due to funding limitations, this was not feasible to code.

Reference:

Griffin, J. A., et al. (2007). NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. National Institute of Health. Adapted script from mother-child-interaction at 15 months.

Problems measured by Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA)- Problem Scale.

Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 64. Lower score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., Irwin, J. R., Wachtel, K., & Cicchetti, D. V. (2004). The Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. Journal of pediatric psychology, 29(2), 143-155.

Problems measured by Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA).

Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 64. Lower score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Briggs-Gowan, et al. (2004). The Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. Journal of pediatric psychology, 29(2), 143-155.

Pre-Literacy measured by The Reading House.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 14. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Hutton, et al. (2019). The Reading House: A Children's Book for Emergent Literacy Screening During Well-Child Visits. Pediatrics, 143 (6): e20183843. 10.1542/peds.2018-3843

Hutton et al. (2021). Validation of The Reading House and Association With Cortical Thickness. Pediatrics, 147(3), e20201641. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-1641

Measured by the Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability. Modified on September 30, 2022 to no longer measure child IQ, as described below.

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 21 (raw 10-90). Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Note: The IQ score is calculated using two subtests -- Matrices and Recognition -- and we began our fieldwork on July 9, 2022 with both. On the basis of preliminary analysis of the first 71 cases, we discovered that 21% of participants scored at the floor of the Recognition assessment. We therefore dropped the Recognition subtest from our data collection instrument on September 30 2022, precluding us from calculating IQ in subsequent participants. Scores on the Matrices subtest, which measures visual processing and abstract spatial perception (not IQ per se), are now registered as an age-4 secondary outcome.

Reference:

Wechsler, D., Naglieri, J. A. (2006). Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Measured by EEG

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Brain Function outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993). Higher values indicate a better outcome.

Measured by EEG.

We hypothesize greater frontal gamma power in the high-cash gift group, and plan to analyze a full model of regions nested within bands, with the plan to report all exploratory outcomes. See analysis plan.

References:

Tomalski, P., et al. (2013); Otero, G. A., et. al (2003); Marshall, P. J., et.al. (2004)

Troller-Renfree, S. V., et. al. (2022). The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(5).

Our primary hypothesis (detailed above) is based on data gathered in the eyes- closed condition. We also preregister the corresponding analyses of data from the eyes-open condition as secondary hypotheses, with the same directional hypotheses as the eyes-closed condition. A second set of secondary analyses are based on a different estimation approach. Consistent with another RCT examining brain activity, we will analyze band-specific effects using mixed-effects models, with group as the between-subjects factor and region as within-subjects factor, to examine ITT impacts on each band of relative power in the eyes-closed condition. Our secondary hypotheses for each band are as follows: Theta (high-cash<low-cash), Alpha (high-cash>low-cash), Beta (high-cash>low-cash), and Gamma (high-cash>low-cash). One-tailed t-tests will be used given directional hypotheses. No further multiple-testing adjustments beyond the us use of multi-level models will be used. See Statistical Analysis Plan.

Our primary hypothesis (detailed above) is based on data gathered in the eyes- closed condition. We also preregister the corresponding analyses of data from the eyes-open condition as secondary hypotheses, with the same directional hypotheses as the eyes-closed condition. A second set of secondary analyses are based on a different estimation approach. Consistent with another RCT examining brain activity, we will analyze band-specific effects using mixed-effects models, with group as the between-subjects factor and region as within-subjects factor, to examine ITT impacts on each band of relative power in the eyes-closed condition. Our secondary hypotheses for each band are as follows: Theta (high-cash<low-cash), Alpha (high-cash>low-cash), Beta (high-cash>low-cash), and Gamma (high-cash>low-cash). One-tailed t-tests will be used given directional hypotheses. No further multiple-testing adjustments beyond the us use of multi-level models will be used. See Statistical Analysis Plan.

Measured by CDC BMI percentage scales.

Reference:

Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States.

Body Mass Index. Measured by CDC BMI percentile scales. We expect to see a reduced percentage of overweight or obese (greater than or equal to 85th percentile) children in the high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group. We will report mean percentile scores of the two groups in descriptive analyses.

Body Mass Index. Measured by CDC BMI percentile scales. We expect to see a reduced percentage of overweight or obese (greater than or equal to 85th percentile) children in the high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group. We will report mean percentile scores of the two groups in descriptive analyses.

Measured by hair cortisol concentration.

Note: Our original plan was to measure physiological stress using hair cortisol concentration. The first several months of data collection revealed large racial and ethnic differences in willingness to provide a hair sample, due to both cultural and practical reasons. Because of the large amounts of non-random missing data, which would both compromise our statistical power and limit the generalizability of any findings, we dropped hair cortisol from our data collection procedures on October 25, 2022.

Reference:

Ursache, A., Merz, E. C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., & Noble, K. G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150.

Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™)

Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates a better outcome. (4 questions asked)

Reference:

Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24.

Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™)

Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24.

Measured by an additive index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items) Minimum raw value: 3; Maximum raw value: 16. Lower score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203.

Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items)

Reference:

Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203.

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum raw value: 3; Maximum raw value: 16. Lower score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37

Has child been diagnosed with any chronic health condition? Yes/No. If yes; asthma and/or something else. Expect lower rate in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Has child been diagnosed with any chronic health condition? Yes/No. If yes; asthma and/or something else. Expect lower rate in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document. Please also see preregistration at OSF: https://osf.io/ahv2p/?view\_only=

Reference:

Belsky, W. D. et al. (2020). Quantification of the pace of biological aging in humans through blood test, the DunedinPoAm DNA methylation algorithm. eLife 9:e54870. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54870

Belsky, W. D. et al. (2022). DunedinPACE, a DNA methylation biomarker of the pace of aging. eLife 11:e73420. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.73420

Methylation pace of aging was developed from DNA-methylation analysis of Pace of Aging in the Dunedin Study birth cohort. Pace of Aging is a composite phenotype derived from analysis of longitudinal change in 18 biomarkers of organ-system integrity. In contrast, so-called epigenetic clocks are trained on chronological age. Increments of methylation pace of aging correspond to "years" of physiological change occurring per 12-months of chronological time. The second iteration (DunedinPACE) takes into account an additional measurement occasion and only includes the most reliable DNA methylation probes, i.e. probes with little variation between technical replicates. If a higher quality measure of epigenetic aging at the time of analysis becomes available, we we will substitute that instead.We will also report GrimAge Acceleration, which we consider an exploratory analysis. GrimAge represents a DNA-methylation metric designed to predict morbidity and mortality.

References: see Table 9

Methylation pace of aging was developed from DNA-methylation analysis of Pace of Aging in the Dunedin Study birth cohort. Pace of Aging is a composite phenotype derived from analysis of longitudinal change in 18 biomarkers of organ-system integrity. In contrast, so-called epigenetic clocks are trained on chronological age. Increments of methylation pace of aging correspond to "years" of physiological change occurring per 12-months of chronological time. The second iteration (DunedinPACE) takes into account an additional measurement occasion and only includes the most reliable DNA methylation probes, i.e. probes with little variation between technical replicates. If a higher quality measure of epigenetic aging at the time of analysis becomes available, we we will substitute that instead.We will also report GrimAge Acceleration, which we consider an exploratory analysis. GrimAge represents a DNA-methylation metric designed to predict morbidity and mortality.

References: see Table 9

Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document. Please also see preregistration at OSF: https://osf.io/ahv2p/?view\_only=

Reference:

McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5

Salivary DNA-methylation profiles of cognitive functioning, i.e., "Epigenetic-g", can be computed on the basis of weights from a blood-based epigenome wide association study of general cognitive functions (g) in adults (McCartney et al., 2022). General cognitive ability was derived from the first unrotated principal component of logical memory, verbal fluency and digit symbol tests, and vocabulary. Epigenetic-g is conceptually distinct from biological aging. If a higher quality measure of epigenetic profile of cognitive functioning becomes available at the time of analysis, we we will substitute that instead.

Reference: McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5

Salivary DNA-methylation profiles of cognitive functioning, i.e., "Epigenetic-g", can be computed on the basis of weights from a blood-based epigenome wide association study of general cognitive functions (g) in adults (McCartney et al., 2022). General cognitive ability was derived from the first unrotated principal component of logical memory, verbal fluency and digit symbol tests, and vocabulary. Epigenetic-g is conceptually distinct from biological aging. If a higher quality measure of epigenetic profile of cognitive functioning becomes available at the time of analysis, we we will substitute that instead.

Reference: McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5

Measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 10. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf

Measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value: 10. Lower score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

References:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf Hunsberger M, O'Malley J, Block T, Norris JC. Relative validation of Block Kids Food Screener for dietary assessment in children and adolescents. Matern Child Nutr. 2012:1-11. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2012.00446.x.

Measured by an index of survey items (see Appendix Table 9 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

References:

Los Angeles County WIC Survey. (2017). Retrievable from: http://lawicdata.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/WIC-Parents-Quex-English-FINAL.pdf Hunsberger M, O'Malley J, Block T, Norris JC. Relative validation of Block Kids Food Screener for dietary assessment in children and adolescents. Matern Child Nutr. 2012:1-11. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2012.00446.x.

Measured by the total number of maternal-reported concerns that are "predictive of developmental delay" in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997.

Measured by the total score across categories of components of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS), which includes 10 survey items.

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 10. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Any Maternal Concern for Developmental Delay outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997.

Measured by one dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates a worse outcome.

Reference:

Study PIs

Dichotomous measure 1:yes 0:no, constructed from the questionnaire categories: Diagnosis of Dev. Condition: speech delay, autism, ADHD, something else (this Q is part of Health Qs) We will estimate whether there are group differences, but do not formulate a directional hypothesis, because of two offsetting possibilities: i) the high-cash gift group may have better access to services, which may lead to higher rates of diagnosis and/or ii) the cash gifts may lead to fewer developmental conditions

Dichotomous measure 1:yes 0:no, constructed from the questionnaire categories: Diagnosis of Dev. Condition: speech delay, autism, ADHD, something else (this Q is part of Health Qs) We will estimate whether there are group differences, but do not formulate a directional hypothesis, because of two offsetting possibilities: i) the high-cash gift group may have better access to services, which may lead to higher rates of diagnosis and/or ii) the cash gifts may lead to fewer developmental conditions

Maternal report of whether the child has an IEP or receives special educational services using questions adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations section of the PSID Child Development Supplement. 1: yes; 0: no We will estimate whether there are group differences, but do not formulate a directional hypothesis, because of two offsetting possibilities: i) the high-cash gift group may have better access to services, which may lead to higher rates of diagnosis and receipt of special education and/or ii) the cash gifts may lead to higher school achievement and therefore lower need for special education and individual education plans.

Reference: Adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations (SEE) section of the 2021 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement: Beaule et al.(2023). PSID-2021 Main Interview User Manual: Release 2023. Institute

Maternal report of whether the child has an IEP or receives special educational services using questions adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations section of the PSID Child Development Supplement. 1: yes; 0: no We will estimate whether there are group differences, but do not formulate a directional hypothesis, because of two offsetting possibilities: i) the high-cash gift group may have better access to services, which may lead to higher rates of diagnosis and receipt of special education and/or ii) the cash gifts may lead to higher school achievement and therefore lower need for special education and individual education plans.

Reference: Adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations (SEE) section of the 2021 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement: Beaule et al.(2023). PSID-2021 Main Interview User Manual: Release 2023. Institute

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We report this measure as the group mean of a binary indicator. Values of 1 are assigned if the household income is less than or equal to the poverty line for the household size and 0 if it is greater than the poverty line.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We report this measure as the group mean of a binary indicator. Values of 1 are assigned if the household income is less than or equal to the poverty line for the household size and 0 if it is greater than the poverty line.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We report this measure as the group mean of a binary indicator. Values of 1 are assigned if the household income is less than or equal to the poverty line for the household size and 0 if it is greater than the poverty line.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children. We report this measure as the group mean of a binary indicator. Values of 1 are assigned if the household income is less than or equal to the poverty line for the household size and 0 if it is greater than the poverty line.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Household Poverty Rate measured using the Census Bureau's Poverty thresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

US Census Bureau

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of nine items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 9. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of eight items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Item 9 dropped at age 4 owing to survey time constraint.

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 8. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of six items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 6. Higher score indicates more ecomomic stress. Expect less stress for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Economic Stress measured by an additive index of six items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 6. Higher score indicates more ecomomic stress. Expect less stress for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Maternal Hardship measured by one item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document).

Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates more hardship. Expect less hardship for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Maternal Hardship measured by one item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document).

Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates more hardship. Expect less hardship for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. Additive index of 5 items with minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value:5. Lower score indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf

Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. Additive index of 6 items with minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value:6. Lower score indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf

Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. Additive index of 6 items with minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value:6. Lower score indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf

Index of Food Insecurity measured by the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form. Additive index of 6 items with minimum raw value: 0; Maximum raw value:6. Lower score indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Household Economic Hardship outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module: Six-Item Short Form retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/8282/short2012.pdf

Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference: study PIs

Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference: study PIs

Measured by an additive index of 9 items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5.

Reference: study PIs

Time to Labor Market Re-entry from Birth measured by the number of months from child's birth until mother's reentry into the labor market (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: study PIs

Time to Full-Time Labor Market Reentry from Birth measured by the number of months from child's birth until mother's full-time reentry into the labor market (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: study PIs

The group mean of a dichotomous variable indicating whether mother is participating in the labor market. A value 0 indicates no participation and a 1 indicates participation in the labor market.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Dichotomous variable indicating whether mother is participating in the labor market.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Dichotomous variable indicating whether mother is participating in the labor market.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: study PIs

Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: study PIs

Mother's Education and Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: study PIs

Mother's Education Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect more education in high-cash gift group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Mother's Education Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect more education in high-cash gift group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Mother's Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect more training in high-cash gift group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Mother's Training Attainment measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect more training in high-cash gift group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Mother's Earnings in the previous calendar year (non-inflation adjusted)

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID)

Mother's Earnings in the previous calendar year. Expect higher income for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID)

Mother's Earnings in the previous calendar year. Expect higher income for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Mother's Labor Market and Education Participation outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference: Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID)

Index of Child-Focused Expenditures since birth measured by an additive index of 8 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 8. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect higher spending for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

References:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

Schild et al. (2023). Effects of the Expanded Child Tax Credit on Household Spending: Estimates Based on US Consumer Expenditure Survey Data (No. w31412). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2023/pdf/ec230010.pdf

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect higher spending for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

References:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

Schild et al. (2023). Effects of the Expanded Child Tax Credit on Household Spending: Estimates Based on US Consumer Expenditure Survey Data (No. w31412). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2023/pdf/ec230010.pdf

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect higher spending for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

References:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

Schild et al. (2023). Effects of the Expanded Child Tax Credit on Household Spending: Estimates Based on US Consumer Expenditure Survey Data (No. w31412). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2023/pdf/ec230010.pdf

Index of Expenditures in past 30 days measured by a dollar amount sum of responses to survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect higher spending for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

References:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

Schild et al. (2023). Effects of the Expanded Child Tax Credit on Household Spending: Estimates Based on US Consumer Expenditure Survey Data (No. w31412). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2023/pdf/ec230010.pdf

Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Cost of Paid Child Care measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Use of Center-Based Care measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 1. Higher score indicated better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Use of Center-Based Care measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 1. Higher numbers indicate better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Use of Center-Based Care measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Use of Center-Based Care measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child-Focused Expenditures outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Lugo-Gil, J., Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Assessing expenditures on children in low-income, ethnically diverse, and immigrant families. National Poverty Center Working Paper Series, 06-36.

National Study of Early Care and Education

Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 6. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Housing Quality measured by an additive index of 8 survey items(see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 17. Higher score indicated better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Index of Housing Quality measured by an additive index of 9 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum value: 0; Maximum value: 19. Higher score indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Excessive Residential Mobility measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Excessive Residential Mobility measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Excessive Residential Mobility measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Homelessness measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Homelessness measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Homelessness measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the group average of proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the group average of proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the group average of proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the group average of proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Housing and Neighborhoods outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. Expect less neighborhood poverty in the high-cash group.

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Neighborhood Poverty measured by the proportion of residents in the respondent's census tract that are below the poverty line, using census data. Expect less neighborhood poverty in the high-cash group.

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists.

Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale. Additive index of 9 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 36. Lower score indicates better outcomes

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi\_usergd.pdf

Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists.

Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale. Additive index of 9 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 36. Lower score indicates better outcomes

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi\_usergd.pdf

Perceived Stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 32. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Family and Maternal Perceived Stress outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists.

Parenting Stress measured by the Aggravation in Parenting Scale.

Note: Index dropped from age 4 survey owing to time constraints

Reference:

The Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, retrieved from https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/cds/cdsi\_usergd.pdf

Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires

Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires

Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 3. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires

Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 3. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect higher score in high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires

Global Happiness measured by survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 1; Maximum score: 3. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect higher score in high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

The General Social Survey from NORC at the University of Chicago, retrieved from: http://gss.norc.org/Get-Documentation/questionnaires

Agency measured by the Adult Hope Scale. Additive index of 8 items.

Minimum value: 8; Maximum Value: 40. Higher value indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585.

Agency measured by the Adult Hope Scale. Additive index of 8 items.

Minimum value: 8; Maximum Value: 40. Higher value indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585.

Agency measured by the Adult Hope Scale. Additive index of 8 items.

Minimum value: 8; Maximum Value: 40. Higher value indicates better outcome

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Happiness and Optimism outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-585.

Measured by maternal hair cortisol in picograms per milligram (pg/mg). Values of 750 and higher (n=45) are physiologically implausible and thus were not analyzed.

Reference:

Ursache, A., Merz, E.C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., Noble, K.G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150.

Measured by maternal hair cortisol in picograms per milligram (pg/mg). Values of 750 and higher (n=45) are physiologically implausible and thus were not analyzed.

Note: Our original plan was to measure physiological stress using hair cortisol concentration. The first several months of data collection revealed large racial and ethnic differences in willingness to provide a hair sample, due to both cultural and practical reasons. Because of the large amounts of non-random missing data, which would both compromise our statistical power and limit the generalizability of any findings, we dropped hair cortisol from our data collection procedures on October 25, 2022.

Reference:

Ursache, A., Merz, E.C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., Noble, K.G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142-150.

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale.

Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Carlson, S. M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical Report, v. 2. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS) Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We expect a higher value of the maternal MEFS standardized score for the high-cash gift group mothers than the low-cash gift mothers.

Reference:

Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Carlson, S. M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical Report, v. 2. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Reflection Sciences (2021). Minnesota executive function scale technical report. Reflection Sciences. https://reflectionsciences.com/wp-content/uploads/MEFS-Technical-Report-July-2021.pdf

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS). Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome. We expect a higher value of the maternal MEFS standardized score for the high-cash gift group mothers than the low-cash gift mothers.

Reference:

Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Carlson, S. M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical Report, v. 2. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Reflection Sciences (2021). Minnesota executive function scale technical report. Reflection Sciences. https://reflectionsciences.com/wp-content/uploads/MEFS-Technical-Report-July-2021.pdf

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24

Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24

Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We expect less depression in the high- as opposed to low-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Depression measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

Min value: 0; Max value: 24. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We expect less depression in the high- as opposed to low-cash group. We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kroenke, K. & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric annals, 32(9), 509-515.

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the Beck Anxiety Inventory.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Steer, R.A. & Beck, A.T., (1997). Beck Anxiety Inventory. In C.P. Zalaquett & R.J. Wood (Eds), Evaluating stress: A book of resources (pp. 23-40). Lanham, MD, US: Scarecrow Education

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. Additive index of 7 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 21. Lower value indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the Beck Anxiety Inventory.

Min value: 0; Max value: 44. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Steer, R.A. & Beck, A.T., (1997). Beck Anxiety Inventory. In C.P. Zalaquett & R.J. Wood (Eds), Evaluating stress: A book of resources (pp. 23-40). Lanham, MD, US: Scarecrow Education

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. Additive index of 7 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 21. Lower value indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. Min value: 0; Max value: 21. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We expect less anxiety in the high- as opposed to low-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

Index of Maternal Anxiety measured by the GAD-7. Min value: 0; Max value: 21. Higher score indicates worse outcome. We expect less anxiety in the high- as opposed to low-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Mental Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092

Alcohol and Cigarette Use measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Alcohol and Cigarette Use measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 8. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Opioid Use measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Opioid Use measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Substance Abuse outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Measured by the Home Environment Chaos Scale. Additive index of 20 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 20. Lower value indicates better outcome.

Reference:

Evans, G.W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L.A., Gentile, L, & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560-565.

Measured by the Home Environment Chaos Scale. Additive index of 20 items.

Minimum value: 0; Maximum Value: 20. Lower value indicates better outcome.

Reference:

Evans, G.W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L.A., Gentile, L, & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16(7), 560-565.

Measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by the group mean of a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by a survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 5. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by an additive index of 10 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 10; Maximum score: 30. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by an additive index of 10 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 10; Maximum score: 30. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

User's Guide for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study Public Data, Year 3. (2018). Retrieved from: https://fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/sites/fragilefamilies/files/year\_3\_guide.pdf

Measured by a group average of a dichotomous indicator of whether the participant scored below target score (26) from an additive index of survey items. Value of 1 for the indicator (lower values of additive index) represent worse outcome, thus a higher average proportion of the outcome indicates a worse outcome. (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items and cutoff point for high or low quality).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Relationships outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37.

Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome measured during the same wave cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37.

Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect better health for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome measured during the same wave cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37.

Global Health measured by one survey item (see Appendix Table 10 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items). Expect better health for high-cash group.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome measured during the same wave cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of health and social behavior, 21-37.

Sleep measured by an additive index of 3 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Sleep measured by an additive index of 3 survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Maternal Physical Health outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Kling, J.R., Liebman, J.B., Katz, L.F. (2007). Experimental analysis of neighborhood effects. Econometrica, 75(1), 83-119.

Body Mass Index measured by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts.

Reference:

Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States.

Body Mass Index measured by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts.

Dichotomous measure based on CDC BMI percentile scales We expect to see a reduced percentage of overweight or obese (BMI greater than or equal to 25) mothers in the high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group. We will report mean BMI of the two groups in descriptive analyses.

Reference:

Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States.

Body Mass Index measured by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts.

Dichotomous measure based on CDC BMI percentile scales We expect to see a reduced percentage of overweight or obese (BMI greater than or equal to 25) mothers in the high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group. We will report mean BMI of the two groups in descriptive analyses.

Reference:

Kuczmarski, R. J. (2000). CDC growth charts; United States.

Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system algorithm count of Adult words from LENA recording during parent-child interaction, standardized to represent 10 minute play session. Higher is better;

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Xu, D., Yapanel, U., & Gray, S. (2009). Reliability of the LENA Language Environment Analysis System in young children's natural home environment. LENA Foundation.

Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system algorithm count of Conversational Turns from LENA recording during parent-child interaction, which counts back and forth vocal interactions, standardized to represent 10 minute play session. Higher is better;

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Xu, D., Yapanel, U., & Gray, S. (2009). Reliability of the LENA Language Environment Analysis System in young children's natural home environment. LENA Foundation.

Measured using PICCOLO (Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes) coding of parenting behaviors from the total of four sub-scales (affection, responsiveness, encouragement and teaching) with responses ranging from 0: absent, 1: barely, 2: clearly. Domain scores are calculated as the sum of item scores within each domain. The reported total positive parenting score is derived by summing the four domain scores. Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 58. Higher score indicates more frequent displays of developmentally supportive parenting behaviors. Parent child interaction task and script adapted from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing

Measured using PICCOLO (Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes) coding of parenting behaviors from the total of four sub-scales (affection, responsiveness, encouragement and teaching) with responses ranging from 0: absent, 1: barely, 2: clearly. Domain scores are calculated as the sum of item scores within each domain. The reported total positive parenting score is derived by summing the four domain scores. Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 58. Higher score indicates more frequent displays of developmentally supportive parenting behaviors. Parent child interaction task and script adapted from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Parent-Child Interaction Quality outcome cluster using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing

Block play and grocery shopping game. Grocery shopping game task and script adapted from Leyva et al., 2017 and Leyva et al., 2019. Coding: Measured using Emotional Availability scale (EAS) - 4th Edition middle childhood/youth version (Biringen et al., 2008; Biringen et al., 2014) coding of parenting behaviors from a total of four maternal sub-scales (sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility) with responses scored on a 7-point scale across the two PCI tasks. The additive total composite score will be pre-registered. We hypothesize a higher composite score for the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group. Please see details of confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory analysis, and all references in Table 10 in the Statistical Analysis Plan.

Two tasks to be determined. Coding: Measured using Emotional Availability scale (EAS) - 4th Edition middle childhood/youth version (Biringen et al., 2008; Biringen et al., 2014) coding of parenting behaviors from a total of four maternal sub-scales (sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility) with responses scored on a 7-point scale across the two PCI tasks. The additive total composite score will be pre-registered. We hypothesize a higher composite score for the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group. Please see details of confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory analysis, and all references in Table 10 in the Statistical Analysis Plan.

Measured by the total number of word tokens (adult word count) in maternal speech during the parent-child interaction tasks (Anderson et al 2021; Rowe, 2008; Rowe, 2012). Coded through transcripts at the utterance level. We hypothesize a higher adult word count for mothers in the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group.

References:

Anderson, N. J., Graham, S. A., Prime, H., Jenkins, J. M., & Madigan, S. (2021). Linking quality and quantity of parental linguistic input to child language skills: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 92(2), 484-501.

Rowe, M. (2008). Child-directed speech: relation to socioeconomic status, knowledge of child development and child vocabulary skill. Journal of Child Language, 35, 185-205. doi:10.1017/S0305000907008343 Rowe, M. (2012). A Longitudinal Investigation of the Role of Quantity and Quality of Child-Directed Speech in Vocabulary Development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762-1774.

Measured by the total number of word tokens (adult word count) in maternal speech during the parent-child interaction tasks (Anderson et al 2021; Rowe, 2008; Rowe, 2012). Coded through transcripts at the utterance level. We hypothesize a higher adult word count for mothers in the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group.

References:

Anderson, N. J., Graham, S. A., Prime, H., Jenkins, J. M., & Madigan, S. (2021). Linking quality and quantity of parental linguistic input to child language skills: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 92(2), 484-501.

Rowe, M. (2008). Child-directed speech: relation to socioeconomic status, knowledge of child development and child vocabulary skill. Journal of Child Language, 35, 185-205. doi:10.1017/S0305000907008343 Rowe, M. (2012). A Longitudinal Investigation of the Role of Quantity and Quality of Child-Directed Speech in Vocabulary Development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762-1774.

Measured through three indicators of quality: Mean length of utterance (MLU; average number of morphemes per utterance), word types (number of different word roots produced) as indicators of language complexity and diversity, respectively (Anderson et al 2021; Rowe, 2008; Rowe, 2012), and the proportion of utterances that are wh- questions -What, Where, When, Which, Why, Who, and How (referential and inferential questions)-(Luo et al., 2022; Cristofaro & Tamis-LeMonda, 2012) in maternal speech during the parent-child interaction tasks. Language quality variables will be coded through transcripts at the utterance level. We hypothesize higher language quality scores, either the composite factor or the individual scores, for the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group. Please see details of planned analysis and all references in Table 10 in the Statistical Analysis Plan.

Measured through three indicators of quality: Mean length of utterance (MLU; average number of morphemes per utterance), word types (number of different word roots produced) as indicators of language complexity and diversity, respectively (Anderson et al 2021; Rowe, 2008; Rowe, 2012), and the proportion of utterances that are wh- questions -What, Where, When, Which, Why, Who, and How (referential and inferential questions)-(Luo et al., 2022; Cristofaro & Tamis-LeMonda, 2012) in maternal speech during the parent-child interaction tasks. Language quality variables will be coded through transcripts at the utterance level. We hypothesize higher language quality scores, either the composite factor or the individual scores, for the high-cash gift group relative to the low-cash gift group. Please see details of planned analysis and all references in Table 10 in the Statistical Analysis Plan.

Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document. Please also see preregistration at OSF: https://osf.io/ahv2p/?view\_only=

Reference:

Belsky, W. D. et al. (2020). Quantification of the pace of biological aging in humans through blood test, the DunedinPoAm DNA methylation algorithm. eLife 9:e54870. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54870

Belsky, W. D. et al. (2022). DunedinPACE, a DNA methylation biomarker of the pace of aging. eLife 11:e73420. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.73420

Expect slower DunedinPACE- pace of aging in high-cash group: Methylation pace of aging was developed from DNA-methylation analysis of Pace of Aging in the Dunedin Study birth cohort (Belsky et al., 2022).. Pace of Aging is a composite phenotype derived from analysis of longitudinal change in 18 biomarkers of organ-system integrity (Belsky et al., 2015). Increments of methylation pace of aging correspond to "years" of physiological change occurring per 12-months of chronological time. We will also report GrimAge Acceleration and PhenoAge Acceleration as exploratory analyses. GrimAge represents a DNA-methylation metric designed to predict morbidity and mortality (Lu et al., 2019). Please see details and references in Appendix Table 10.

Expect slower DunedinPACE- pace of aging in high-cash group: Methylation pace of aging was developed from DNA-methylation analysis of Pace of Aging in the Dunedin Study birth cohort (Belsky et al., 2022).. Pace of Aging is a composite phenotype derived from analysis of longitudinal change in 18 biomarkers of organ-system integrity (Belsky et al., 2015). Increments of methylation pace of aging correspond to "years" of physiological change occurring per 12-months of chronological time. We will also report GrimAge Acceleration and PhenoAge Acceleration as exploratory analyses. GrimAge represents a DNA-methylation metric designed to predict morbidity and mortality (Lu et al., 2019). Please see details and references in Appendix Table 10.

Measured using method reported in Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document. Please also see preregistration at OSF: https://osf.io/ahv2p/?view\_only=

Reference:

McCartney, D.L., Hillary, R.F., Conole, E.L.S. et al. Blood-based epigenome-wide analyses of cognitive abilities. Genome Biol 23, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-021-02596-5

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Reference:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 4; Maximum score: 20. Higher score indicates better outcome.

Reference:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items where number of days spent doing activity is multiplied by the number of minutes reported doing activity per day (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Frequency of Parent-Child Activity outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

Additive index of activities where the number of days reported doing the activity are multiplied by the number of minutes on a given day. We expect higher amount for high cash group. Activities are: read books, tell stories, play together, pretend play, physical games outside, learning activities, watch tv or videos. 1. How many days did you participate in [activity]? (1: no days; 2: 1-2 days; 3: 3-5 days; 4: 6-7 days) 1a. On those days, how many minutes do you do typically do this per day? (1: 15 minutes or less; 2: 15-30 minutes; 3: more than 30 minutes).

References:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

BFY Study PIs

Additive index of activities where the number of days reported doing the activity are multiplied by the number of minutes on a given day. We expect higher amount for high cash group. Activities are: read books, tell stories, play together, pretend play, physical games outside, learning activities, watch tv or videos. 1. How many days did you participate in [activity]? (1: no days; 2: 1-2 days; 3: 3-5 days; 4: 6-7 days) 1a. On those days, how many minutes do you do typically do this per day? (1: 15 minutes or less; 2: 15-30 minutes; 3: more than 30 minutes).

References:

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children's vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child development, 82(4), 1058-1075.

BFY Study PIs

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Frequency of Parent-Child Activity outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Study PIs

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect higher score for high-cash group.

Reference:

BFY Study PIs

Frequency of Parent-Child Activity measured by an additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates better outcome. Expect higher score for high-cash group.

Reference:

BFY Study PIs

Measured by a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

Reference:

Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326.

Measured by a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

Reference:

Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326.

Measured by a dichotomous survey item (see Appendix Table 8 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for item).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 1. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

Reference:

Reichman, N.E., Teitler, J.O., Garfinkel, I., MclAnahan, S.S. (2001). Fragile Families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4-5), 303-326.

Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) Subscales: Nonviolent Discipline, Psychological Aggression, and Corporal punishment and 1 item from the Severe Assault (physical abuse) subscale. Total 14 items about conflict strategies with child and harsh discipline are asked about the past year. Min: 14 Max: 98 We expect a reduction of harsh discipline in the high-cash group compared to the low-cash group.

References:

Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child abuse & neglect, 22(4), 249-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9 Cotter, A., Proctor, K. B., & Brestan-Knight, E. (2018). Assessing child physical abuse: An examination of the factor structure and validity of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC). Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 467-475.

Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) Subscales: Nonviolent Discipline, Psychological Aggression, and Corporal punishment and 1 item from the Severe Assault (physical abuse) subscale. Total 14 items about conflict strategies with child and harsh discipline are asked about the past year. Min: 14 Max: 98 We expect a reduction of harsh discipline in the high-cash group compared to the low-cash group.

References:

Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child abuse & neglect, 22(4), 249-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9 Cotter, A., Proctor, K. B., & Brestan-Knight, E. (2018). Assessing child physical abuse: An examination of the factor structure and validity of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC). Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 467-475.

Maternal report of whether the child has repeated a grade, adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations section of the PSID Child Development Supplement. Item: Has child "ever" been held back a grade? Expect fewer retentions in high cash group.

Adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations (SEE) section of the 2021 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement: Beaule, A. Campbell, F., Insolera, N., Juska, P., McAloon-Fernandez, R., McGonagle, K., Mushtaq, M., Simmert, B., & Warra, J. (2023). PSID-2021 Main Interview User Manual: Release 2023. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/data/Documentation/UserGuide2021.pdf

Maternal report of whether the child has repeated a grade, adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations section of the PSID Child Development Supplement. Item: Has child "ever" been held back a grade? Expect fewer retentions in high cash group.

Adapted from the School Enrollment and Expectations (SEE) section of the 2021 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement: Beaule, A. Campbell, F., Insolera, N., Juska, P., McAloon-Fernandez, R., McGonagle, K., Mushtaq, M., Simmert, B., & Warra, J. (2023). PSID-2021 Main Interview User Manual: Release 2023. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/data/Documentation/UserGuide2021.pdf

Maternal report of child's engagement in school using an item adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. "How often would you say that (CHILD) cares about doing well in school"? 4 answer choices: 1. none of the time; 2. some of the time, 3. most of the time; 4. all of the time. Score range: 1-4; higher scores indicate more engagement in school. Expect more engagement in high cash group.

Reference: Ehrle, J. L., & Moore, K. M. (1999). 1997 NSAF Benchmarking Measures of Child and Family Well-Being. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute. National Survey of America's Families Methodology Report No. 6. https://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/Methodology\_6.pdf

Maternal report of child's engagement in school using an item adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. "How often would you say that (CHILD) cares about doing well in school"? 4 answer choices: 1. none of the time; 2. some of the time, 3. most of the time; 4. all of the time. Score range: 1-4; higher scores indicate more engagement in school. Expect more engagement in high cash group.

Reference: Ehrle, J. L., & Moore, K. M. (1999). 1997 NSAF Benchmarking Measures of Child and Family Well-Being. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute. National Survey of America's Families Methodology Report No. 6. https://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/Methodology\_6.pdf

Maternal report of the number of school suspensions, adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. One item: Has child ever been suspended or expelled from school? (no/yes). Expect fewer suspensions in high cash group.

Reference: Adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP): U.S. Census Bureau. (2023). 2022 Survey of Income and Program Participation Users' Guide. U.S. Department of Commerce Economic and Statistics Administration. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/sipp/tech-documentation/methodology/2022\_SIPP\_Users\_Guide\_SEP23.pdf

Maternal report of the number of school suspensions, adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation.One item: Has child ever been suspended or expelled from school? (no/yes). Expect fewer suspensions in high cash group.

Reference: Adapted from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP): U.S. Census Bureau. (2023). 2022 Survey of Income and Program Participation Users' Guide. U.S. Department of Commerce Economic and Statistics Administration. https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/sipp/tech-documentation/methodology/2022\_SIPP\_Users\_Guide\_SEP23.pdf

Estimated number of days missed in last 12 months. Expect fewer absences in high-cash gift group.

Reference: BFY Study PIs

Gathered from school names and city/district. We expect an increase in school quality for the high-cash gift group. The measure we select will be a function of what data will be available at the time of Age 8 wave.

Additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates better outcome. We expect a positive effect on high-cash group.

Reference:

Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L. and Najarian, M. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) User's Manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Data File and Electronic Codebook, Public Version (NCES 2019-051). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019051.pdf

Additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates better outcome. We expect a positive effect on high-cash group.

Reference:

Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L. and Najarian, M. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) User's Manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Data File and Electronic Codebook, Public Version (NCES 2019-051). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019051.pdf

Additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates better outcome. We expect a positive effect on high-cash group.

Reference:

Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L. and Najarian, M. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) User's Manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Data File and Electronic Codebook, Public Version (NCES 2019-051). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019051.pdf

Additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates better outcome. We expect a positive effect on high-cash group.

Reference:

Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L. and Najarian, M. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) User's Manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Data File and Electronic Codebook, Public Version (NCES 2019-051). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019051.pdf

Additive index of survey items (see Appendix Table 10 in Statistical Analysis Plan document for items).

Minimum score: 0 Maximum score: 4. Higher score indicates better outcome. We expect a positive effect on high-cash group.

Reference:

Tourangeau, K., Nord, C., Lê, T., Wallner-Allen, K., Vaden-Kiernan, N., Blaker, L. and Najarian, M. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011) User's Manual for the ECLS-K:2011 Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Data File and Electronic Codebook, Public Version (NCES 2019-051). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019051.pdf

Auditory Discrimination Brain Function measured by mismatch negativity (MMN) ERP with larger differences between standard and deviant stimulus in high-cash gift group compared to the low-cash gift group.

Total of all reporting groups

These subjects receive $20 each month for 76 months via debit card.

Monthly cash gift payments of $20: These subjects receive $20 each month for 76 months via debit card.

Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary (EOWPVT) monolingual and bilingual version. Score range monolingual version: 0-185, bilingual version: 0-180; higher scores indicate better performance. Because the two versions of the test are not co-normed, the primary outcome will be a derived "conceptual score" or sum of the raw scores on all individual items that appear on both versions of the test. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Martin, N., & Brownell, R. (2011). Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test (4th ed.). Novato: Academic Therapy Publications.

Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary (EOWPVT) monolingual and bilingual version. Score range monolingual version: 0-185, bilingual version: 0-180; higher scores indicate better performance. Because the two versions of the test are not co-normed, the primary outcome will be a derived "conceptual score" or sum of the raw scores on all individual items that appear on both versions of the test. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Martin, N., & Brownell, R. (2011). Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test (4th ed.). Novato: Academic Therapy Publications.

If reporting a score on a scale, please include the unabbreviated scale title, the minimum and maximum values, and whether higher scores mean a better or worse outcome.

Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below included in the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS):

1. Do you have any concerns about how your child talks and makes speech sounds? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little)
2. Do you have any concerns about how your child understands what you say? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little)".

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Language Development outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997.

Executive Function measured by Minnesota Executive Function Scale. We analyze standard scores.

Minimum score: 60; Maximum score: 140. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report.

Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

An additional 31 participants attempted this assessment but were excluded from analysis for the following reasons: child unable/unwilling to complete assessment (n=24); experimenter error (n=4); technical error (n=3).

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS); score range: 0-100; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS); score range: 0-100; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Carlson, S.M. (2017). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Technical report. Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014). Minnesota Executive Function Scale: Test Manual. St. Paul, MN: Reflection Sciences, Inc.

Measured by the NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention task. Score range: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance.Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

National Institutes of Health and Northwestern University (2006-2023). NIH Toolbox® for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Administrator's Manual. NIHToolbox.org.

Gershon, R. C., Wagster, M. V., Hendrie, H. C., Fox, N. A., Cook, K. F., & Nowinski, C. J. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S2-S6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e5f Weintraub S, Bauer PJ, Zelazo PD, Wallner-Allen K, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Slotkin J, Blitz DL, Carlozzi NE, Havlik RJ, Beaumont JL, Mungas D, Manly JJ, Borosh BG, Nowinski CJ, Gershon RC. I. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): introduction and pediatric data. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2013 Aug;78(4):1-15. doi: 10.1111/mono.12031. PMID: 23952199

Measured by the NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention task. Score range: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance.Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

National Institutes of Health and Northwestern University (2006-2023). NIH Toolbox® for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Administrator's Manual. NIHToolbox.org.

Gershon, R. C., Wagster, M. V., Hendrie, H. C., Fox, N. A., Cook, K. F., & Nowinski, C. J. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S2-S6. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872e5f Weintraub S, Bauer PJ, Zelazo PD, Wallner-Allen K, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Slotkin J, Blitz DL, Carlozzi NE, Havlik RJ, Beaumont JL, Mungas D, Manly JJ, Borosh BG, Nowinski CJ, Gershon RC. I. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): introduction and pediatric data. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2013 Aug;78(4):1-15. doi: 10.1111/mono.12031. PMID: 23952199

Measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) picture memory subtest. Picture Memory score range: 0-35, higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.We pre-register three scores (MEFS, Flanker, Picture Memory),with a plan to do a confirmatory factor analysis and pre-register the impact on the common factor.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Measured by Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children: 5th Edition (WISC-V) subtest Digit Span. Score Range 0-54. Higher scores indicate better performance. We will pre-register three scores (MEFS, Flanker, Digit Span),with a plan to do a confirmatory factor analysis and pre-register the impact on the common factor. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.

Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271.

Measured by the sum of the two questions listed below, which are part of the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS):

1. Do you have any concerns about how your child behaves? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little)
2. Do you have any concerns about how your child gets along with others? (0: No; 1: Yes or a little).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 2. Higher score indicates worse outcome.

We will estimate the statistical significance of the entire family of related measures in the Child Socio-Emotional Processing outcome cluster measured during the same wave using step-down resampling methods for multiple testing (see statistical analysis plan for more details; Westfall and Young, 1993).

Reference:

Glascoe FP. Parents' Evaluations of Developmental Status: A Method for Detecting and Addressing Developmental and Behavioral Problems in Children. Nashville, TN: Ellsworth & Vandermeer Press, 1997.

Behavior/Problems measured by Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). We analyze a preregistered index (sum of raw scores on 4 subscales: Anxiety/Depression, Aggressive Behavior, Attention Problems, and Emotionally Reactive).

Minimum score: 0; Maximum score: 82. Higher score indicates a better outcome.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatrics in review, 21(8), 265-271.

One additional participant attempted this assessment but was excluded because of missing data on more than 80% of items.

Measured by the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM), assesses attentional, behavioral, and internalizing problems in children. 19 questions and answer choices. Score range: 0-38; higher scores indicate more behavioral problems. Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanova, M. Y., & Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.: ASEBA.

Measured by the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM), assesses attentional, behavioral, and internalizing problems in children. 19 questions and answer choices. Score range: 0-38; higher scores indicate more behavioral problems. Expect lower scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., Ivanova, M. Y., & Rescorla, L. A. (2011). Manual for the ASEBA Brief Problem Monitor (BPM). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.: ASEBA.

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG).

Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summing across alpha, beta, and gamma bands, from 7 to 45 Hz. The composite will reflect the sum of power values (μV2) for each 1-Hz frequency bin between 7 and 45 Hz. Please see statistical analysis plan for more details.

References:

Tomalski, P., et al. (2013); Otero, G. A., et. al (2003); Marshall, P. J., et.al. (2004)

Troller-Renfree, S. V., et. al. (2022). The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(5).

An additional 187 participants were excluded for the following reasons: mother did not consent to EEG collection (n=70), child or parent refused to participate after consenting (n=86), technical problems/experimenter error or ill-fitting cap (n=13), visit ended before EEG collection (n=4), a developmental condition prohibiting collection (n=1), poor data quality (n=4), not enough usable data (n=9).

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG). Ages 6 and 8 Primary hypothesis: Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite index of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summed across alpha, beta, and gamma bands (defined as between 7 and 45 Hz). This frequency composite index sums absolute power (μV2) across all single-Hz intervals in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma bands (7-45 Hz). We hypothesize that, in the eyes-closed condition, the high-cash gift group will show more power in this composite relative to the low-cash gift group. One-tailed t-tests will be used to test this directional hypothesis. See the Statistical Analysis Plan (Phase 2) for additional details and references.

Measured by high-density in-lab electroencephalography (EEG). Ages 6 and 8 Primary hypothesis: Because of limitations in power expected with multiple testing adjustments, we are preregistering a single composite index of mid-to-high-frequency whole-brain power summed across alpha, beta, and gamma bands (defined as between 7 and 45 Hz). This frequency composite index sums absolute power (μV2) across all single-Hz intervals in the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma bands (7-45 Hz). We hypothesize that, in the eyes-closed condition, the high-cash gift group will show more power in this composite relative to the low-cash gift group. One-tailed t-tests will be used to test this directional hypothesis. See the Statistical Analysis Plan (Phase 2) for additional details and references.

Measured by an adapted Short Form of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS™).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 15. Higher score indicates a better outcome. (3 questions asked)

Reference:

Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., ... & Pilkonis, P. A. (2012). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral sleep medicine, 10(1), 6-24.

Measured by an index of six items (see Appendix Table 7 in "Analysis Plan and Measures" document for items).

Minimum score: 3; Maximum score: 14. Higher score indicates a worse outcome.

Reference:

Halim, M. L., Yoshikawa, H., & Amodio, D. M. (2013). Cross-generational effects of discrimination among immigrant mothers: Perceived discrimination predicts child's healthcare visits for illness. Health Psychology, 32(2), 203.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Letter-Word ID. Score range: 0-78; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement: Passage Comprehension. Score range: 0-52. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement: Applied Problems. Score range: 0-56; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement: Applied Problems. Score range: 0-56; higher scores indicate better performance. Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2018). Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement. Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) fluid reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: picture concepts (score range: 0-27; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (score range: 0-26; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group. Note: The Picture Concept subtest had to be dropped on 9/17/2024 due to floor effects.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2012). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Measured by the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II) perceptual reasoning index, assessed through a composite of two tasks: block design (score range: up to 8 years old: 0-57; > 9 yo: 0-71; higher scores indicate better performance) and matrix reasoning (up to 8 years old: 0-24; > 9 yo: 0-30; higher scores indicate better performance). Expect higher scores in high- than low-cash gift group.

Reference:

Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Second Edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.

Child nail samples will be collected to yield a measure of the concentration of cortisol in pg/mg (picograms per milligram). To ensure cortisol levels are within an expected range, values above 500 and equal to or less than 0 will be assigned a missing value. To account for potential outliers, values below 500 will be truncated at the 99th percentile. Cortisol values will be log-transformed. We hypothesize the high-cash gift group will have lower cortisol values when compared to the low-cash gift group. If both fingernail and toenail are collected we will control for whether fingernail or toenail.

Reference: Phillips, R., Kraeuter, A. K., McDermott, B., Lupien, S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2021). Human nail cortisol as a retrospective biomarker of chronic stress: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 123, 104903.

Child nail samples will be collected to yield a measure of the concentration of cortisol in pg/mg (picograms per milligram). To ensure cortisol levels are within an expected range, values above 500 and equal to or less than 0 will be assigned a missing value. To account for potential outliers, values below 500 will be truncated at the 99th percentile. Cortisol values will be log-transformed. We hypothesize the high-cash gift group will have lower cortisol values when compared to the low-cash gift group. If both fingernail and toenail are collected we will control for whether fingernail or toenail.

Reference: Phillips, R., Kraeuter, A. K., McDermott, B., Lupien, S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2021). Human nail cortisol as a retrospective biomarker of chronic stress: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 123, 104903.

NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Age-corrected standardized score. We expect a higher value of the maternal Flanker score for the high-cash gift group than the low-cash gift mothers. Higher scores indicate better performance. Prior to the Flanker administration, respondent/mother will be asked to listen and reflect for a minute on these questions: "Imagine that an unforeseen event requires of you an immediate $1,000 expense. Are there ways in which you may be able to come up with that amount of money on a very short notice? How would you go about it? How stressful would it be to manage this?

Gershon et al. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3) S2-S6.

Slotkin J, et al. (2012) NIH Toolbox Scoring and Interpretation Guide (Northwestern and NIH).

Zelazo PD, et al. (2013) II. NIH Toolbox cognition battery (CB): Measuring executive function and attention. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 78:16-33.

NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test. Age-corrected standardized score. We expect a higher value of the maternal Flanker score for the high-cash gift group than the low-cash gift mothers. Higher scores indicate better performance. Prior to the Flanker administration, respondent/mother will be asked to listen and reflect for a minute on these questions: "Imagine that an unforeseen event requires of you an immediate $1,000 expense. Are there ways in which you may be able to come up with that amount of money on a very short notice? How would you go about it? How stressful would it be to manage this?

Gershon et al. (2013). NIH Toolbox for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3) S2-S6.

Slotkin J, et al. (2012) NIH Toolbox Scoring and Interpretation Guide (Northwestern and NIH).