Diabetes generates significant morbidity, mortality, and costs within the Veterans Health Administration (VHA). Veterans with persistently poor diabetes control despite clinic-based care are among the highest-risk diabetes patients in VHA, and contribute disproportionately to VHA's massive burden of diabetes complications and costs. VHA critically needs effective, practical management alternatives for Veterans whose diabetes does not respond to clinic-based management. The proposed study will address this need by leveraging VHA's unique Home Telehealth capacity to deliver comprehensive telemedicine-based management for Veterans with persistently poor diabetes control despite clinic-based care. Because this intensive intervention is delivered using only existing Home Telehealth workforce, infrastructure, and technical resources - which are ubiquitous at VHA centers nationwide - it could represent an effective, practical approach to improving outcomes in Veterans with PPDM, potentially translating to a substantial reduction in VHA's diabetes burden.

This study will evaluate a comprehensive telemedicine intervention for Veterans with persistently poor diabetes control despite clinic-based Veterans Health Administration (VHA) care. Because this approach is designed for delivery via existing Home Telehealth (HT) services, which are ubiquitous throughout VHA, it may represent an effective, practical alternative for Veterans whose diabetes is refractory to clinic-based care.

Although efforts by clinicians and researchers have improved diabetes control across VHA, Veterans with persistent poorly-controlled diabetes mellitus (PPDM) have not benefitted from these advances. The investigators define PPDM as maintenance of a hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) 8.5% for >1 year, despite receiving clinic-based diabetes care during this period. Veterans meeting this definition - approximately 12% of all Veterans with type 2 diabetes - contribute disproportionately to VHA's burden of diabetes complications and costs.

While clinic-based care is insufficiently effective in PPDM, telemedicine-based management that comprehensively addresses factors underlying poor diabetes control could improve outcomes for these high-risk Veterans. Unfortunately, healthcare systems have rarely integrated comprehensive telemedicine-based care into real-world practice, even for clinic-refractory conditions like PPDM. This gap stems from the fact that comprehensive telemedicine-based diabetes care has not previously been designed for practical delivery under real-world conditions. In order for telemedicine to fulfill its potential as a means to reduce the burden of PPDM, interventions must be developed with an emphasis on feasible delivery through existing workforce, infrastructure, and technical resources, such that effective implementation is eventually achievable. Until then, Veterans with PPDM will be left without alternatives when clinic-based care proves inadequate.

The proposed trial will evaluate Practical Telemedicine to Improve Control and Engagement for Veterans with Clinic-Refractory Diabetes Mellitus (PRACTICE-DM), a novel, comprehensive telemedicine intervention for PPDM that is designed for practical delivery within VHA. The Specific Aims of this study are to: 1) determine PRACTICE-DM's effectiveness; 2) evaluate PRACTICE-DM's acceptability and mechanisms of effect using a mixed method process evaluation; and 3) understand costs associated with PRACTICE-DM.

Two hundred Veterans with PPDM from two sites (Durham, North Carolina (NC) and Richmond, Virginia (VA)) will be randomized to receive one of two HT-delivered interventions: 1) PRACTICE-DM, a comprehensive intervention combining telemonitoring, self-management support, diet/activity support, medication management, and depression support; or 2) an active control, standard HT care coordination and telemonitoring. Both interventions will be delivered over a 12-month period and all participants will continue to receive usual VHA care.

The primary study outcome will be change in HbA1c from study baseline to 12 months. The secondary outcomes are guided by a theoretical framework, and will include diabetes self-care, diabetes burden, self-efficacy, and depressive symptoms. Qualitative interviews will be conducted with 20 intervention-group Veterans, the HT nurses delivering the intervention, and administrators at each site. Intervention costs will be comprehensively assessed and compared to standard HT care coordination and telemonitoring.

Although VHA is a leader in telemedicine, its telemedicine capabilities are currently underutilized for Veterans with PPDM. These Veterans are refractory to clinic-based care, so contribute disproportionately to diabetes complications and costs. This study will leverage VHA's unique telemedicine infrastructure to deliver comprehensive management designed for PPDM, with the goal of improving outcomes in this high-risk, high cost population. Because the proposed intervention is designed for delivery using existing HT services, it may represent an effective, practical approach to reducing the burden of poor diabetes control across VHA.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Veterans with persistently poorly-controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus defined as the presence of 2 HbA1c values 8.5% during the prior year (none <8.5%) despite 1 or more appointments with a VHA Primary Care Provider (PCP) or Endocrinology during this period.

Exclusion Criteria:

• age >70
• life expectancy <5 years, or other comorbidities that would offset the benefits of HbA1c <8.5%
• inability to communicate by telephone
• dementia or psychosis
• active alcohol/substance disorder
• pregnancy
• prior hypoglycemic seizure/coma
• refusal to perform self-monitored blood glucose (SMBG)
• use of insulin infusion pumps
• hospitalized for stroke, heart attack or had surgery for blocked arteries in the past 12m
• receiving kidney dialysis
• metastatic cancer diagnosis
• use of a continuous blood glucose monitor (due to HT equipment constraints)
• primary provider requests patient not participate

Randomized patients with persistently poorly controlled diabetes mellitus

Adverse events were collected with each patient contact and a systematic review with study outcome visits during the 12month participation.

Adverse Events were monitored/assessed without regard to the specific Adverse Event Term

Because participants will receive information on both study arms during the consent process, we will not attempt to blind participants to randomization assignment. However, in order to assure blinding of the staff that manage outcome data collection, randomization (including participant notification of group assignment by phone) will be managed by the project coordinator.