Reward processing will be examined in prenatally exposed emerging adults in a longitudinal design. Participants will be followed for one year to see if neural markers of reward processing prospectively predict risk-taking behavior.

This cohort will be drawn from a pre-existing cohort of individuals recruited as part of an already existing study, and who have been followed since birth. Reward processing will be measured in two temporally close testing sessions involving two methodologies, electrophysiology and fMRI. Information will also be collected pertaining to experimental and problematic drug use, as well as information about mood, at the recording sessions. Drug use and mood information will then be collected once again in quarterly follow-up sessions for one year. The goal is to examine if PCE status and reward processing are risk factors for problematic drug abuse and risky behaviors in emerging adulthood, and if these factors interact to increase such risk.

Inclusion Criteria:

1. Ability to provide written informed consent and to comply with all study procedures.
2. Healthy emerging adults between 18-20 years of age (the age of the currently followed sample at the time of the proposed start date).

Exclusion Criteria:

• 1. A serious neurological or endocrine disorder or any medical condition or treatment known to affect the brain. 2. A medical condition that requires treatment with a medication with psychotropic effects.

  3. Evidence of stroke or space occupying lesions observed on conventional, clinical MR images.

  4. Any contraindications to MRI scanning (i.e., metal implants, pacemakers, etc.) 5. History of loss of consciousness (LOC) for longer than 30 minutes or LOC with any neurological sequelae.

  6. DSM-5 criteria for intellectual disability. 7. Current or a history of active neurological or psychiatric disorders, such as psychosis, bipolar illness, major depression, organic brain disease, dementia or DSM-V Axis I Psychiatric Disorder, including current alcohol or substance disorders. Participants will not be excluded for substance or alcohol use, only the presence of substance disorders.

  8. Current pregnancy. Female participants will be excluded if they report being currently pregnant or present positive for pregnancy after being given a urine test at the time of recruitment or scanning. If they become pregnant during the one-year follow-up duration of the study after the MRI scan is completed, they will remain in the study for the quarterly follow-ups and be referred to pre-natal care if they have not begun such care already.

Emerging adults in this study will be drawn from a sample of 359 individuals who have been participating in a longitudinal study of the effects of PCE on physical, social, cognitive and emotional development. Children and their mothers who were exposed to drugs other than cocaine were also enrolled, as were non-drug exposed controls. Prenatal drug exposure status was ascertained at time of recruitment via a detailed interview that covered lifetime substance use and use in the past 30 days, as well as a urine screening of mother and infant and meconium toxicology. The sample from which participants will be recruited consists of 81% African American, 6.5% Hispanic and 12.5% Caucasian children, all of who come from the greater New Haven area. The sample was recruited at birth over a 5-year period.