The proposed study is an important, under-investigated area of ICU care for terminally ill patients undergoing terminal ventilator withdrawal. The proposed research has relevance to public health because an algorithmic approach to the ventilator withdrawal process will enhance clinicians' ability to conduct the process while assuring patient comfort, using opioids and/or benzodiazepines effectively.

Terminal ventilator withdrawal is a process that entails the cessation of mechanical ventilatory support with patients who are unable to sustain spontaneous breathing and is commonly performed in the ICU. Ventilator withdrawal is undertaken to allow a natural death. Opioids and/or benzodiazepines are administered before, during, and after as an integral component of the ventilator withdrawal process to prevent or relieve respiratory distress, but there are few guidelines to determine how much to administer or when. Insufficient opioid and/or benzodiazepine administration places the patient at risk for unrelieved respiratory distress and preventable suffering. Conversely, excessive medication administration may hasten death, an unintended consequence, and one that concerns clinicians. The effective doses of medications given during ventilator withdrawal are unknown. The investigators hypothesize that an algorithmic approach to ventilator withdrawal, relying on a biobehavioral instrument to measure and trend distress, will ensure patient comfort, and guide effective opioid and/or benzodiazepine administration. The investigators plan to use a stepped wedge cluster randomized controlled trial with all clusters providing unstructured usual care until each cluster is randomized to implement the algorithmic approach (intervention). The proposed study is innovative because there is no standardized, evidence-based approach guided by an objective measure of respiratory distress to this common ICU procedure. The study has broad clinical significance to provide knowledge that can potentially reduce patient suffering.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Patients undergoing ventilator withdrawal

Exclusion Criteria:

• Patients who are conscious and cognitively intact
• Patients who will undergo organ donation after ventilator withdrawal
• Patients who are brain dead
• Patients with bulbar amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
• Patients with C-1 to C-4 quadriplegia
• Patients with locked-in syndrome

The investigators will provide public access to the de-identified data files through two open repositories: Wayne State University's DigitalCommons (http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/), which will provide perpetual access to the data, and the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research's openICPSR (https://www.openicpsr.org/), which will provide access to the data for at least 10 years.

All study sites begin in usual care and each site is randomly assigned to crossover to the intervention arm until all sites conclude in the intervention arm.