A novel video game-based intervention that incorporates physiological measures such as heart rate into the core game mechanics, with motion capture technology to incorporate whole-body kinematics into game play. This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks. The "Body Trainer" group will train using closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge physical performance as guided by heart rate, such that the amount of movement needed to respond on each task will dynamically change depending upon the participant being below/above a predetermined derived level of exertion. During "Body Training", participants will only perform a basic reaction task in each level/module to ensure only the most minimal cognitive challenge is present

The "Brain Trainer" group will train using the aforementioned closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge cognitive performance, except while sitting down and playing with an Xbox control pad (thus removing all physical training aspects). This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks.

The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps (playing each app 10 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 8 weeks completed in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on the cognitive or physical fitness measures we are assessing: i) an app with 100 different logic games of varying difficulty and length, ii) a language-learning app with 10 language options, and iii) an app that offers a guided Tai Chi program. We have pre-determined that this approach generates matched expectancy compared to our training groups: we asked 100 naïve individuals to predict how they would expect to improve performance on our outcome measures after training on one of these platforms, revealing that placebo training generates equivalent expectations of improvement across each outcome measure as the BBT group.

Assessing a change in event-related spectral perturbation following the intervention

Assessing a change in coherence following the intervention. This measure assesses the synchronization of neural activity between frontal and posterior regions of the brain, looking to quantify how coherent these signals are. For example, if the activity at the front of the head shows greater synchrony with activity at the back of the head, than this measure of interest would show a greater amount of coherence.

Coherence of this type is reported in the form of phase locking value, which tells us how consistently the timing of those rhythms stay aligned across many repetitions of the same event. PLV close to 1 (or 100%) → very consistent timing, almost perfectly locked together, whereas PLV close to 0 → timing is random, no consistent relationship. PLVs are typically reported in decibels to facilitate seeing subtle changes, compare across conditions, and stay consistent with other brainwave measures.

The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on cognition

Expectancy Matched Control: The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps (playing each app 10 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 8 weeks completed in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on the cognitive or physical fitness measures we are assessing: i) an app with 100 different logic games of varying difficulty and length, ii) a language-learning app with 10 language options, and iii) an app that offers a guided Tai Chi program. We have pre-determined that this approach generates matched expectancy compared to our training groups: we asked 100 naïve individuals to predict how they would expect to improve performance on our outcome measures after training on one of these platforms, revealing that placebo training generates equivalent expectations of improvement across each outcome measure as the BBT group.

Total of all reporting groups

Race and Ethnicity were not collected from any participant.

Participants will only perform a basic reaction task in each level/module to ensure only the most minimal cognitive challenge is present, while completing all of the physical aspects of BBT. Thus this will be a physical training protocol.

Body Trainer: A novel video game-based intervention that incorporates physiological measures such as heart rate into the core game mechanics, with motion capture technology to incorporate whole-body kinematics into game play. This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks. The "Body Trainer" group will train using closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge physical performance as guided by heart rate, such that the amount of movement needed to respond on each task will dynamically change depending upon the participant being below/above a predetermined derived level of exertion. During "Body Training", participants will only perform a basic reaction task in each level/module to ensure only the most minimal cognitive challenge is present

The "Brain Trainer" group will train using the same platform as the BBT group, except while sitting down and playing with an Xbox control pad (thus removing all physical training aspects).

Brain Trainer: The "Brain Trainer" group will train using the aforementioned closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge cognitive performance, except while sitting down and playing with an Xbox control pad (thus removing all physical training aspects). This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks.

The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on cognition

Expectancy Matched Control: The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps (playing each app 10 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 8 weeks completed in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on the cognitive or physical fitness measures we are assessing: i) an app with 100 different logic games of varying difficulty and length, ii) a language-learning app with 10 language options, and iii) an app that offers a guided Tai Chi program. We have pre-determined that this approach generates matched expectancy compared to our training groups: we asked 100 naïve individuals to predict how they would expect to improve performance on our outcome measures after training on one of these platforms, revealing that placebo training generates equivalent expectations of improvement across each outcome measure as the BBT group.

A change from baseline regarding measurement of working memory abilities in the presence of interference. This task involved memorizing a face for set amount of time, followed by a delay period (during which participants were exposed to different types of distracting images), followed by the presentation of an image that participants are cued to respond whether or not this image matches the initial one presented. Here we examined a version of response time variance derived from exGaussain Statistics called tau, that is a measure of response time variance that considers the tails on a Gaussian distribution with respect to response time variability. This analysis allows one to see how variant one's performance could be on trials that fall outside of their mean performance distribution.

Assessing a change in systolic & diastolic pressure following the intervention

Assessing a change in balance following the intervention

Assessing a change in event-related spectral perturbation following the intervention

Assessing a change in coherence following the intervention. This measure assesses the synchronization of neural activity between frontal and posterior regions of the brain, looking to quantify how coherent these signals are. For example, if the activity at the front of the head shows greater synchrony with activity at the back of the head, than this measure of interest would show a greater amount of coherence.

Coherence of this type is reported in the form of phase locking value, which tells us how consistently the timing of those rhythms stay aligned across many repetitions of the same event. PLV close to 1 (or 100%) → very consistent timing, almost perfectly locked together, whereas PLV close to 0 → timing is random, no consistent relationship. PLVs are typically reported in decibels to facilitate seeing subtle changes, compare across conditions, and stay consistent with other brainwave measures.

Participants will only perform a basic reaction task in each level/module to ensure only the most minimal cognitive challenge is present, while completing all of the physical aspects of BBT. Thus this will be a physical training protocol.

Body Trainer: A novel video game-based intervention that incorporates physiological measures such as heart rate into the core game mechanics, with motion capture technology to incorporate whole-body kinematics into game play. This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks. The "Body Trainer" group will train using closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge physical performance as guided by heart rate, such that the amount of movement needed to respond on each task will dynamically change depending upon the participant being below/above a predetermined derived level of exertion. During "Body Training", participants will only perform a basic reaction task in each level/module to ensure only the most minimal cognitive challenge is present

The "Brain Trainer" group will train using the same platform as the BBT group, except while sitting down and playing with an Xbox control pad (thus removing all physical training aspects).

Brain Trainer: The "Brain Trainer" group will train using the aforementioned closed-loop adaptive algorithms to challenge cognitive performance, except while sitting down and playing with an Xbox control pad (thus removing all physical training aspects). This group will train for 36 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks.

The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on cognition

Expectancy Matched Control: The placebo-matched control group will engage in a battery of three apps (playing each app 10 minutes per day, 5 days a week for 8 weeks completed in the laboratory that we believe will have no significant impact on the cognitive or physical fitness measures we are assessing: i) an app with 100 different logic games of varying difficulty and length, ii) a language-learning app with 10 language options, and iii) an app that offers a guided Tai Chi program. We have pre-determined that this approach generates matched expectancy compared to our training groups: we asked 100 naïve individuals to predict how they would expect to improve performance on our outcome measures after training on one of these platforms, revealing that placebo training generates equivalent expectations of improvement across each outcome measure as the BBT group.