Significant concern regarding the safety of general anesthesia in children has arisen due to myriad animal studies suggesting neurotoxicity of commonly used anesthetic agents. Inflammation of the central nervous system after anesthesia may have a significant role in the pathogenesis of anesthetic-induced neural injury. To evaluate this hypothesis, the investigators propose to randomize healthy infants undergoing elective surgery to one of two anesthetics: 1) spinal anesthesia only; or 2) general inhalational anesthesia with isoflurane, laryngeal mask airway (LMA) or endotracheal tube (ETT), and single-shot caudal block. Primary endpoint will be serum inflammatory biomarkers and transcriptome analysis and secondary endpoint will be neurocognitive outcome at 6 months and 1 year.

Inclusion Criteria:

1. Otherwise healthy child aged 0-less than 13 months undergoing elective (non-emergent) general, urologic, orthopedic, and plastic surgery
2. Parent/guardian must provide written informed consent in accordance with human investigation committee guidelines
3. Participants must be American Society of Anesthesiologist (ASA) physical status ≤ 2

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Any active bacterial or viral infection within the last 14 days
2. Treatment in the last 48 hours with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) or corticosteroid medications, or any other drug known to suppress or induce inflammation
3. Anticoagulant administration in the last 48 hours
4. Patients that have an American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status >2
5. Infants born more than 4 weeks premature