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This is a pilot "window of opportunity" clinical study in patients with operable breast cancer investigating use of reparixin as single agent in the time period between clinical diagnosis and surgery.

The primary objectives of this study were:

1- to evaluate the effects of orally administered reparixin on CSCs in the primary tumor and the tumoral microenvironment in an early breast cancer population:

A. CSC were measured in tissue samples by techniques that could include: ALDEFLUOR assay and assessment of CD44/CD24 by flow cytometry, or examination of RNA transcripts by RT-PCR, aldehyde dehydrogenase-1, CD44/CD24 and epithelial mesenchymal transition markers (Snail, Twist, Notch) by immunohistochemistry (IHC). CSC were defined as ALDEFLUOR positive (ALDH-1+) and/or CD44 high/CD24 low by flow cytometry or RT-PCR and IHC and by the detection of ALDH-1+ cells with or without epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) transcription factor in IHC assays.

B. Serine-threonine protein kinase (AKT), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and chemokine receptor-1 (CXCR1) levels were measured in tissue samples by IHC.

C. Measurement of markers of inflammation (interleukin-1beta [IL-1β], interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-8 [IL-8], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α], granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor [GM-CSF], vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF], basic fibroblast growth factor [b-FGF] and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hsCRP]) in plasma, leukocyte subsets (enumerate T subsets, B, and natural killer/natural killer T [NK/NKT] cells) and study polymorphonuclear leukocyte [PMN] biology in peripheral blood samples. D. Measurement of markers of angiogenesis (CD31 staining), tumor-infiltrating leukocytes (CD4, CD8, NK and macrophages), autophagy (P62 and LC3 by IHC), EpCAM and EMT markers (CD326, CD45, Twist1, SNAIL1, SLUG, ZEB1, FOXC2, TG2, Akt2, P13k and CK19 by RT-PCR) and tissue cellularity (residual disease characterization in tumor bed) in tumor tissue samples.

2. To evaluate the safety of oral reparixin administered three times daily (t.i.d.) for 21 consecutive days.

The secondary objective was to define the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of orally administered reparixin.

According to the cancer stem cell (CSC) model, tumors are organized in a cellular hierarchy maintained by a subpopulation of cells displaying stem cell properties. These properties include self-renewal (which drives tumorigenesis) and differentiation (which generates the tumor bulk and contributes to cellular heterogeneity).

CSCs were first observed in hematological malignancies but have also been identified in solid tumors of breast, prostate, brain, colon and pancreas. CSCs are thought to be resistant to conventional chemotherapies and this may be why relapse occurs in many patients and this might explain the failure to develop therapies that are consistently able to eradicate solid tumors. Although currently available drugs can shrink metastatic tumors, these effects are usually transient and often do not appreciably extend the life of patients. One reason for the failure of these treatments is the acquisition of drug resistance by the cancer cells as they evolve; another possibility is that existing therapies fail to kill CSCs effectively. Existing therapies have been developed largely against the bulk population of tumor cells because they are often identified by their ability to shrink tumors. Because most cancer cells have limited proliferative potential, an ability to shrink a tumor mainly reflects an ability to kill these cells. It seems that normal stem cells from various tissues tend to be more resistant to chemotherapeutics than mature cell types from the same tissues. The reasons for this are not clear, but may relate to high levels of expression of anti-apoptotic proteins or adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters such as the multidrug resistance gene. If the same were true of CSCs, then one would predict that these cells would be more resistant to chemotherapeutics than tumor cells with limited proliferative potential. Even therapies that cause complete regression of tumors might spare enough CSCs to allow re-growth of the tumors. Therapies that are more specifically directed against CSCs might result in much more durable responses and even cures of metastatic tumors.

There are limited data on the impact of treatment tailoring based on CSC detection. Gene profiling of CSCs could lead to identification of therapeutic targets on CSCs (e.g. hormone receptors (HR), human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 [HER-2] expression, epidermal growth factor receptor [EGFR] expression), and could represent tumor biopsy in "real time". Several groups showed frequent discordance of HER-2 status between primary tumor and CSCs, and case reports showed clinical utility for the use of trastuzumab-based therapy based on HER-2 CSCs status. Similarly, the hormonal status of CSCs could be different from that of the primary tumor, which could lead to increase the number of patients suitable for endocrine therapy, but also could explain why endocrine therapy fails in a subset of HR positive (HR+) patients. More specifically, a recent observation from Ginestier et al. demonstrated that over expression of chemokine receptor 1 (CXCR-1) is associated with the aldehyde dehydrogenase positive (ALDH+) cells. In breast carcinomas, the ALDEFLUOR+ phenotype shows partial overlap with the CD44+CD24-Lin-CSC phenotype. Cellular hierarchies have been identified in a series of molecularly characterized breast cancer cell lines and it has been demonstrated that these lines contained ALDEFLUOR+ components that were both tumorigenic and metastatic in NOD/SCID mice. Furthermore, previous observations demonstrated that the addition of recombinant interleukin-8 (IL-8) increased the CSC population as well as increasing its propensity for invasion. Moreover, tissue damage induced by chemotherapeutic agents may induce IL-8 as part of the injury response. This suggests that strategies aimed at interfering with the IL 8/CXCR-1 axis may be able to target CSCs, increasing the efficacy of current therapies. This experimental data provides another therapeutic target in breast cancer.

Reparixin seems to be a good candidate for use in breast cancer patients because of its very acceptable toxicity profile shown in the Phase I and II clinical trials conducted so far, along with its observed activity in vitro against breast cancer cell lines and in vivo in tumor xenografts in mice. A phase 1 study is currently underway to study the effects of reparixin in combination with paclitaxel in metastatic breast cancer.

This small pilot study aims at exploring the effects on breast CSC markers as well as the safety and PK profile of orally administered single agent reparixin in HER-2 negative (HER-2-) early breast cancer patients in the 3 weeks prior to surgery.

The study will be performed in the interval between disease diagnosis and planned surgery and may lead to a minimal delay in surgery. This is balanced by the potential benefits of the study by evaluating CSCs and their prognostic importance as well as obtaining information about the impact of reparixin therapy.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Female aged > 18 years.

• Patients with operable breast cancer, with measurable tumors of more than 1 cm in diameter, that are not candidates for neoadjuvant therapy.

• Zubrod (Eastern Co-operative Oncology Group [ECOG]) Performance Status (PS) of 0-1.

• No prior treatment by surgery, radiotherapy, hormone therapy e.g. TAMOXIFEN® or RALOXIFEN® for prevention or chemotherapy.

• Scheduled to undergo definitive local surgery for breast cancer.

• Patients must be willing to undergo two mandatory tumor biopsies (pre and post therapy) that are not required for standard care. A sample of tumor tissue removed during surgery will also be collected for analysis.

• Patients must be able to swallow and retain oral medication (intact tablet).

• Able to undergo all screening assessments outlined in the protocol after giving informed consent.

• Adequate organ function (defined by the following parameters):

  1. Serum creatinine < 140 μmol/L or creatinine clearance > 60 mL/min.
  2. Serum hemoglobin > 9 g/dL; absolute neutrophil count > 1.5 x 109/L; platelets > 100 x 109/L.
  3. Serum bilirubin < upper normal limit (UNL).
  4. Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) ≤ UNL; alkaline phosphatase (ALP) ≤ UNL; albumin within normal limits.

• Documented hormone receptor (ER and progesterone receptor) and HER-2- status.

• No known hepatitis B virus (unless due to immunization), hepatitis C virus, human immune deficiency virus-I and II positive status.

Exclusion Criteria:

• Male.

• Pregnancy or lactation or unwillingness to use two adequate methods of birth control throughout the study and for 30 days after study discontinuation.

• Any other breast cancer types including inflammatory form.

• Prior surgery to the breast area or primary axillary dissection.

• Prior treatment for breast cancer.

• Use of an investigational drug within 30 days preceding the first dose of study medication.

• Any prior or current cancer, except in situ uterine carcinoma or basocellular cutaneous cancer considered as definitively cured.

• Any associated medical condition considered incompatible with the study, e.g. cardiac, renal, medullar, respiratory or hepatic insufficiency.

• Neurological or psychiatric disorders which may influence understanding of study and informed consent procedures.

• Active or uncontrolled infection.

• Malabsorption syndrome, disease significantly affecting gastrointestinal function.

• Hypersensitivity to:

  1. ibuprofen or to more than one non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug;
  2. medications belonging to the class of sulfonamides, such as sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfasalazine, nimesulide or celecoxib.