Treatment 1: Polycose Glucose Polymer Module powder (Abbott Nutrition, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064), fed as 25% of each individual's daily fiber intake based on calculated energy expenditure (14 grams of fiber for every 1000 kcal consumed) for eleven consecutive days.

Treatment 2: Bovine Milk Oligosaccharide (BMO) powder (Hilmar Ingredients, Hilmar, California 95324) Dosage: 25% of individual daily fiber intake, split into two daily servings Frequency: Two servings per day (for total of 25% dosage per day) Duration: 11 days, followed by a 2-week wash-out period

Fiber intake was 25% of each individual's daily fiber intake based on calculated energy expenditure (14 grams of fiber for every 1000 kcal consumed) for eleven consecutive days.

Treatment 3: Bovine Milk Oligosaccharide (BMO) powder (Hilmar Ingredients, Hilmar, California 95324) Dosage: 35% of individual daily fiber intake, split into two daily servings Frequency: Two servings per day (for total of 25% dosage per day) Duration: 11 days, followed by a 2-week wash-out period

Fiber intake was 35% of each individual's daily fiber intake based on calculated energy expenditure (14 grams of fiber for every 1000 kcal consumed) for eleven consecutive days.

The BMO powder will be isolated from whey streams by Hilmar Ingredients (Hilmar, California 95324). Hilmar Ingredients employs the same membrane filtration, and centrifugation processes used to purify whey protein in their commercial practice to extract and purify BMO from whey permeate. Furthermore, the same sterilization processes used on the equipment to purify whey products will be used to purify BMO. This method uses a novel high-throughput food-grade isolation protocol that leads to purification of specific BMOs with bifidogenic activity as prebiotic oligosaccharides that mimic the activities observed for Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMO). This strategy of developing methods for their large scale fractionation allows us to obtain a final product that mimics the naturally beneficial oligosaccharides present in human milk.

Gut microbiota will be analyzed for 16s rRNA by next generation sequencing, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

First morning urine samples will be analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Fasting plasma lipid profile (total triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol) will be analyzed by enzymatic analysis by UC Davis Pathology Lab.