The overall goal of this study is to evaluate the impact of cognitive training on blood levels of neurotrophic factors in adults.

Current research suggests that levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and certain excitatory neurotransmitters - specifically glutamate, D-serine, and glycine are low in participants with depression and other mental illnesses (Wolkowitz and Reus 2002, Tan et al., 2005; Shoval & Weizman, 2005; Hashimoto et al., 2005). Research also suggests that levels of both BDNF and excitatory transmitters can be enhanced by cognitive stimulation (Hynd et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2005; Mattson et al., 2004). BDNF is found in brain tissue and is also measurable in blood; it stimulates neuronal cell growth in certain brain regions (Duman, 2004). In Phase 1, we wish to measure the levels of specific neurotrophic factors in healthy, young participants. Phase 2 is intended to correlate similar levels with change in neurocognitive performance in healthy, older participants. Overall, this study is designed to obtain a raw measure of the impact that cognitive training has on the mature adult brain.

Inclusion Criteria:

Phase 1: Closed

• Age 18-30 at the time of consent
• Good general medical health
• Willing to undergo venipuncture procedure

Phase 2: Activation Pending

• Age 65 or older at the time of consent
• Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE) score of 26 or higher
• Willing to undergo venipuncture procedure
• Fluency in the English language
• Participant is willing and able to commit to the time requirement of the study

Exclusion Criteria:

Phase 1

• Participant is experiencing chronic or acute illness
• Current substance abuse, including alcoholism
• Diagnosis of a major psychological disorder
• Current use, or use within the past 3 months of medications specified by protocol
• Participant is unwilling or unable to perform questionnaires as specified in the protocol
• Participant is not capable of giving informed consent or is unable to comprehend and/or follow directions in English
• Participant is enrolled in a concurrent clinical study that could affect the outcome of this study
• Female only: Participant is pregnant

Phase 2

Sensory/Motor Exclusions:

• Reported or observed difficulties with a participant's dominant hand

Psychiatric Exclusions:

• Current diagnosis of a major psychological disorder or a psychiatric hospitalization
• Current substance abuse, including alcoholism

Neurological Exclusions:

• Current diagnosis of a major neurological disorder that may impact cognitive functioning
• History of stroke, traumatic brain injury (leading to loss of consciousness), brain cancer, or invasive neurological procedure within the past year
• Diagnosis of medically uncontrolled seizure disorder

Medication Exclusions:

• Current use, or use within the past 3 months of medications specified within the investigational plan

Additional Exclusions:

• Participant is unwilling or unable to perform assessments and/or evaluations as specified in the protocol
• Participant is not capable of giving informed consent or is unable to comprehend and/or follow directions
• Participant is enrolled in a concurrent clinical study that could affect the outcome of this study